SOIL 






RANK D. GAR DNE 



/ 




Class 

Book_ 

Copyright N?. 



CQRHiGirr deposit 




Plan fob \ I irmstead. 

1 Residence. 2 Poultry-house. 3 Milk-house. -I — Silo. 5 — Dairy-barn. 
6 Horse-barn. 7 S * crops. 8 — (arm machinery, u — Shop and garage. 

10 — ( 'um crib. < Irchard on Left , garden to right. 



FARMING FOR PROFIT 

SOILS AND 
SOIL CULTIVATION 

A NON-TECHNICAL MANUAL ON THE 
MANAGEMENT OF SOIL FOR THE PRODUC- 
TION AND MAINTENANCE OF FERTILITY 



BY 



FRANK D. GARDNER 

PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE 
AND EXPERIMENT STATION 



ASSISTED BY 
R. U. BLASINGAME ^ 

Professor of Agricultural Engineering 
Alabama Polytechnic Institute 




ILLUSTRATED 



THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY 

PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO 



s^l* 



G< 



V'. 



Copyright, 1918, by 
The John C. Winston Company 



Copyright, 1916, by 
L. T. Myers 



m »^ ld 



\ 



ICI.A5I5 a 






PREFACE 

This book is written for amateur as well as professional farmers and 
will also be of interest to students of agriculture and prospective farmers. 
It makes a popular appeal to all men engaged in farming and is designed 
to be a handy reference work on soils, their classification and treatment 
and the proper adaptation of crops with a view to preserving and increasing 
the fertility of the soil and producing the largest and best yield in point of 
quality. 

Ages of farm experience and a few generations of agricultural research 
have given us a vast store of practical knowledge on tilling the soil and 
raising crops. This knowledge is scattered through many different volumes 
on different phases of the subject, in experiment station bulletins, agricul- 
tural journals and encyclopedias. The important facts on which the most 
successful farming is based are here brought together in orderly and 
readable form. Not only are directions given for the management of the 
soil but the best types of farm buildings and equipment are fully described 
and illustrated, including farm machinery of the latest type, farm sanita- 
tion, drainage and irrigation. 

The subject-matter is arranged in two parts of a number of chapters 
each, and by referring to the Table of Contents any subject may be 
quickly found. References are freely given at the close of each chapter. 
Each chapter has been prepared by a specialist in the subject presented. 
The name of the author appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those 
unacknowledged have been prepared by myself. 

The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit 
has been given these. 

Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and the 
other volumes in the series for their conception, and for many helpful 
suggestions in the presentation of its subject-matter. 

Acknowledgment is also due Professor E. L. Worthen and Professor 
R. S. Smith, both of The Pennsylvania State College, for helpful suggestions 
and criticisms on soils and crop rotations. I wish also to especially acknowl- 
edge the valuable editorial assistance of my wife in the preparation of the 
manuscript. 

Frank D. Gardner. 



C5) 



CONTENTS 



PART L SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT 

Chapter 1. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND CROP^ADAPTATION 15 

Soils are permanent — What farmers should know — The science of the soil — How 
soils are formed — Weathering and disintegration — Decomposition — What is the 
soil — The soil solids — The soil fluid — Gases of the soil — Soil classification—Soil 
surveys — Soils of the United States — Classification by texture — Crop adaptation — 
Summary of soil adaptedness — Eastern soils not worn out — Soil adaptation of six- 
teen crops common to Northeastern States — Soil adaptation of the leading cropa 
of the North Central Region, South Central and South Atlantic Coast Region, 
Plains and Mountain Region, Pacific Coast Region — Aids to the solution of soil 
problems. 

Chapter 2. PHYSICALrCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES 33 

Texture of soil — Water-holding capacity of soils — Water movement in soil — Absorp- 
tion of fertilizers — Plasticity and ease of cultivation — Texture affects crop adapta- 
tion — Texture affects tillage — Structure of the soil — Granular structure — Granula- 
tion improved by organic matter — Good tilth important — Solubility of soil 
minerals — Rate of solubility depends on texture and kind of minerals — Soil bacteria 
increase solubility — Rapid solubility results in loss of fertility — Chemical composi- 
tion of soils — Availability important — Elements essential to plants — Soil bacteria — 
Bacteria make plant food available — Nitrogen increased by bacteria — Bacteria 
abundant near surface. 

Chapter 3. FERTILITY AND HOW TO. MAINTAIN 44 

Fertility defined — Vegetation an index to fertility — Drainage reflected in character 
of vegetation — Lime content and acidity related to plants — Vegetation and alkali — 
Color of soil related to fertility — Maintenance of fertility — Fertility lost by plant 
removal — Loss by erosion — Preventing soil erosion — Farming systems that main- 
tain fertility — Deep plowing advisable — Tillage is manure — Rotations are helpful — 
Rotations reduce diseases — Cover crops prevent loss of fertility — Legumes increase 
soil nitrogen — Drainage increases fertility — Manure is the best fertilizer — Commer- 
cial fertilizers add plant food only — The limiting factor — Fertility an economic 
problem. 

Chapter 4. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 54 

Object and use of commercial fertilizers — What are commercial fertilizers — Where 
are fertilizers secured — Carriers of nitrogen — Phosphorus — Potassium — Forms of 
fertilizer materials — Relative value of fertilizer ingredients — The composition of 
fertilizers — What analyses of fertilizers show — Commercial vs. agricultural value of 
manures — Mechanical condition — High-grade vs. low-grade fertilizers — Use of 
fertilizers — Value of crop determines rate of fertilization — Valuable products 
justify heavy fertilization — Character of fertilizer related to soil — What the farmer 
should know — How to determine needs of soil — Effect modified by soil and crop — 
Which is the best fertilizer to use — Needs of different soils — Crop requirements — ■ 
Fertilizers for cereals and grasses — Legumes require no nitrogen — Available forms 
best for roots — Slow-acting fertilizers suited to orchards and small fruits — Nitrogen 
needed for vegetables — Fertilizers for cotton — Miscellaneous fertilizer facts — Effect 
of fertilizers on proportion of straw to grain — Principles governing profitable use of 
fertilizers — When to apply fertilizers — Methods of application — Purchase of fertili- 
zers — Home mixing of fertilizers. 

<7) 



8 CONTENTS 



Chapter 5. BARNYARD, STABLE AND GREEN MANURES 76 

Manure an important farm asset — As a source of plant food — Physical effect of 
manures — Biological effect of manure — The value of manure — Horse manure — 
Cattle manure — Hog manure — Sheep manure — Poultry manure — Miscellaneous 
farm manures — Value of manure influenced by quality of feed — Amount and char- 
acter of bedding affects value of manure — Methods of storing and handling — Losses 
of manure — Experimental results — How to prevent loss — Absorbents vs. cisterns — 
Sterilization — Reinforcing of manures — Economical use of manure — To what crops 
should manure be applied — To what soils should manure be applied — Climate 
affects decomposit ion — Eroded soils most in need of manure — Rate of application — 
Methods of applying manure — Top dressing vs. plowing under — The parking 
system — Distribution of benefits. 

Green Manures. 
When is green manuring advisable — Objections to green manuring — Principal 
green-manuring crops. 

Chapter 6. LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS. 97 

Soils need lime — Lime content of soils — How soils lose lime — Lime requirements 
of soils — Crops require lime — Tolerance to acidity — Lime as affecting growth of 
plants — Sources of lime — Forms of lime. 

Functions of Lime. 
Lime as plant food — Chemical action of lime — Physical effect of lime — Lime affects 
soil bacteria — Lime corrects soil acidity — Sanitary effect of lime — Injurious effect of 
lime — Rale of application — Time of applying — Frequency of application — Methods 
of applying — Relative values of different forms of lime — Mixing with manure and 
fert Qizers Experimental results — Spreading lime — Slaking lime — Crushing vs. 
burning lime. 

Chapter 7. SOIL WATER, ITS FUNCTIONS AND CONTROL 112 

Amount and distribution of rain — Amount of water necessary to produce crops — 
Transpiration by plants — Forms of soil water — Capillary water — Gravitational 
water — Hygroscopic water — Water affects temperature of soil — Water storage 
capacity of soils — Moisture conservation — Removing excess of water. 

Land Drainage. 
Drainage increases warmth and fertility of soil — Improves health conditions — Open 
vs. underground drains — Quality of tile — Cost of tile and excavating — Depth and 
frequency of drains — Grades, silt basins and junctions — The outlet — Size of tile. 

Chapter 8. GENERAL METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 124 

Objects of tillage — Plowing — Time of plowing — Depth of plowing — Subsoiling — 
Disking — Harrowing — Planking or dragfrin^ — Rolling — Character of seed-bed — 
< 'ult i vat ion anil hoeing — Control of weeds — Soil mulches — Soil erosion — Soil 
injury — Time and intensity of tillage are economic factors. 

PART II. FARM BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT 

Chapter 9. FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES AND GATES 139 

The Farm Residence. 

Barns. 
Hank barns — Dairy barns — Storage capacity — Floor space and arrangement — 
Sialile floors — Lighting — Ventilation ( 'onveniences — Silos. 

Out Buildings. 
The implement house — : Corn cribs— Hog bouses Poultry houses — Milk houses 
— Ice houBec Roofing Use of concrete Lightning rods — Fences and gates. 

Chapter 10. FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 161 

Advantages of farm machinery — Tillage machinery — Cultivators — Seeding 
machines — Corn planters. 



CONTENTS 



Harvesting Machinery- 
Mowing machines — Self-rake reaper — Self-binder — Corn harvesters — Threshing 
machines — Corn shellers — Silage cutters — Manure spreader — Milking machines 
— Spraying machines — Tractors — Farm vehicles — Hand implements — Tools — 
Handy conveniences — Machinery for the house — Buying farm machinery — Care 
of machinery — Condition of machinery — Utilizing machinery — Cost of farm 
machinery — Duty of farm machinery. 

Chapter 11. ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS FOR THE FARM 189 

The Real Power for the Farm. 
Gas engine principles — Vertical and horizontal engines — Ignition — Cooling system 
— Lubrication — Gas engine parts — Governors — Gas engine troubles. 

Transmission of Power. 
Shafting — Speed of shafting — The size of pulleys — Kind of pulleys — Straight and 
crown faces — Covering steel pulleys — Pulley fasteners. 

Belts and Belting. 
Advantages of belts — Disadvantages — Essentials of a belt — Leather belts — Rubber 
belts — Belt slipping. 

Water Motors. 
Overshot wheels — Undershot wheels — Breast wheels — Impulse water motors — 
Turbine wheels — The hydraulic ram. 

The Farm Tractor. 
The size of tractors — Tractor efficiency — Type of tractor. 

Chapter 12. FARM SANITATION 204 

Lighting. 
Kerosene lamps — Gasoline lamps — Acetylene gas — Electrical lighting. 
Heating — Ventilation — Water supply — Sewage disposal. 

Chapter 13. FARM DRAINAGE AND mRIGATION 211 

Land Drainage. 
Co-operation — Tile drains — Running the levels — Establishing the grades — Small 
ditching machines — Size of tile. 

Irrigation. 
Water rights — Co-operation — Sources of water — Dams and reservoirs — Methods 
of transmission — Losses in transmission — Head gates — Preparing land for irriga- 
tion — Farm ditches — Distributaries —Distributing the water — The check system — 
Duty of water — When to irrigate — Irrigation waters — Alkali troubles. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Plan for a Farmstead {Color Plate) Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Rock Weathering and the Process of Soil Formation 16 

The Soil Provinces and Soil Regions of the United States {Color Map) . . 20 

The Soil Separates as Made by Mechanical Analysis 21 

Inspecting and Sampling the Soil 22 

A Soil Auger 32 

Rate and Height of Capillary Rise of Water in Soils of Different Texture 34 

The Ease of Seed-bed Preparation Depends on Condition of Soil 37 

Soil Fertility Barrel 50 

Soil Fertility Plats 52 

Effect of Top Dressing Meadows with Commercial Fertilizer 64 

Effect of Fertilizers on the Growth of Sweet Clover 65 

Effect of Commercial Fertilizer on Wheat on a Poor Soil 67 

Soil Fertility Plats 70 

Modern Convenience for Conveying Manure 83 

Piles of Manure Stored Under Eaves of Barn 85 

Spreading Manure from Wagon, Old Way 88 

The Modern Manure Spreader 92 

Rye Turned Under for Soil Improvement 95 

The Growth of Red Clover on an Acid Soil as Affected by Lime 99 

Beets Grown With and Without Lime 101 

The Old Way of Spreading Lime 107 

A Modern Lime Spreader in Operation 108 

A Lime Crushing Outfit Suitable for the Farmer 109 

Details of Construction of a Farm Limekiln 110 

Map Showing Mean Annual Rainfall for All Parts of the United States 112 

Effect of Little, Medium, and Much Water on Wheat 115 

Orchard Well Cultivated to Prevent Evaporation 118 

Water Issuing from an Underground Drain 122 

A Deep Tilling Double-Disk Plow 125 

A Badly Eroded Field 127 

Details of a Good Seed Bed 130 

Terracing as a Means of Preventing Erosion 132 

Another Way to Stop Erosion 133 

An Attractive Farm House 140 

Plans of a Farm House 141 

A Good Type of Barn ►. 142 

Interior of a Cow Stable 143 

Economical and Practical Manure Shed 144 

Plans for a Circular Barn 145 

Cross-Section Showing Ventilation and Stable Floor of Concrete 146 

Ensilage Cutter and Filler 147 

A Good Implement Shed 149 

Plan of Concrete Foundation of Corn Crib 150 

Interior of Double Corn Crib 151 

Two Views of Iowa Gable Roof Hog House 153 

A Concrete Block Ice House 154 

How to Construct a Concrete Water Tank 155 

A "T" Connection for Heavy Wire Lightning Rods 156 

A Good Type of Farm Fence 159 

A Good Type of Walking Plow 161 

(11) 



12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

One Type of Sulky Plow 162 

An Adjustable Smoothing Harrow 163 

Spring Toothed Harrow 163 

Double Disk Harrow 164 

A Corrugated Roller 165 

A Home-made Flanker 166 

A Much Used Form of Corn Cultivator 167 

a wheelbarrow seeder in operation 168 

The Usual Type of Grain Drill with Single Disk Furrow Openers 169 

A Good Corn Planter 170 

( John Harvester with Bundle Elevator 172 

A Mowing Machine with Pea Vine Attachment 173 

An Up-to-date Threshing Machine 175 

Four-hole Mounted Belt Corn Sheller with Right Angle Belt Attach- 
ment 176 

Milking Machine in Operation 178 

A Power Sprayer Routing Orchard Pests 179 

A Collection of Useful Hand Implements 180 

Interior of a Workshop with a $25 Outfit of Tools 181 

Home-made Barrel Cart for Hauling Liquid Feed 182 

Home-made Dump Cart to Make Stable Work Easier 183 

A Washing Machine Saves Much Hard Work for the Housewife 184 

W'iikke do You Prefer to Keep Your Implements? Under the Sky? .. 185 

Sectional View of a Four-Cycle Vertical Gas Engine 188 

Sectional View of a Two-Cycle Engine 190 

Sectional View of a Four-Cycle Horizontal Gas Engine 191 

Three H. P. Gas Engine Operating Binder 193 

Engine Operating Pump Jack 195 

Pelton Water Wheel 199 

Turbine Water Wheel 199 

Three-Flow Tractor in Operation 200 

Hackney Auto-Plow 201 

Plowing on a Large Scale (Color Plate) 202 

Creeping Grip Tractor 202 

Mor-Lite Electric Plant 204 

Electric Lighting Plant for Farm House 205 

Modified King System of Ventilation 206 

A Pneumatic Water Tank 207 

Fairbanks-Mouse Water System for Farms and Suburban Homes 208 

The Kaustine Closet 209 

( rRADING THE Dm II AND LAYING TlLE 212 

A Low Priced Tile Ditcher 213 

'In i : Ditcher in Operation 214 

Delivery Gate to Farm Lateral 218 

Tin: V-Crowder is Kxcellent for Making the Farm Ditches 218 

Canvas Dam to Check Water 219 

Orchard Irrigation by Furrow Method 220 

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System 221 



PART I 
SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT 



(13) 



CHAPTER 1 

Soil Classification and Crop Adaptation 

The thin layer of the earth's surface known as the "soil and subsoil" 
supports all vegetation and makes it possible for the earth to sustain a 
highly developed life. The prosperity and degree of civilization of a 
people depend in a large measure on the productivity and utilization of 
this thin surface layer of the earth's crust. From it come the food supply 
and the materials for clothing and to a considerable extent the materials 
for housing of mankind. 

Soils are Permanent. — The soil is indestructible, and according to the 
great laws of nature, it should be capable of supporting generation after 
generation of men each living on a slightly higher plane than the pre- 
ceding. This necessitates a system of agriculture that is permanent, 
and one that will foster and maintain the productivity of the soil. Each 
man who owns and cultivates land owes it to his fellow-men to so cultivate 
and fertilize the soil that it will be left to his successor in as good or even 
better condition than it was during his occupation. In return, his fellow- 
men should make it possible for him to secure a living without resorting 
to soil robbery. A faulty system of soil management that permits a 
decline in soil productivity will ultimately be just as injurious to the men 
indirectly dependent upon the soil as it is to those actually living on the 
land. 

The soils of the United States and Canada are a great asset, and 
one over which man has relatively large control. Intimately associated 
with this great asset are two other resources, namely, the atmosphere 
that envelops the earth and the sunshine that reaches it. Little can 
be done, however, to control these assets, but with the surface of the earth 
man can do much as he pleases. 

What Farmers Should Know. — Every farmer should have a thorough 
knowledge of the soil on his own farm. In this and following chapters, 
the soil and its properties as related to the business of farming will be 
discussed chiefly from the standpoint of the farmer. The practical farmer 
expects cash compensation for the intelligent care he gives to his land. 
He should be able to distinguish between the essentials and non-essentials 
in the science of the soil. He should know that all soils may be made 
productive, but this cannot always be done at a profit. Soils on which 
men, by the exercise of intelligence and reasonable industry, cannot 
make more than a meager living, should not be cultivated. They should 
revert to nature or be devoted to forestry. There is some land that has 
been cleared of its virgin growth and come under the plow that should 
3 (15) 



16 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



never have been farmed. There are farms, once productive, that have 
been robbed of fertility and neglected until they are no longer fit for 
occupation. There are also some types of farming in some localities, 
once profitable, that are not paying under the changed economic con- 
ditions. These are some of the more acute problems that call for a fuller 
knowledge of the soil than we have previously possessed. The following 
chapters in Part I will deal with the essentials in a non-technical manner. 




Rock Weathering and the Process of Soil Formation. 1 



It is hoped it may all be profitable reading for any one engaged in the 
business of farming. 

The Science of the Soil. — In recent years science has been directed 
towards the soil in search of new truths. The reasons for methods of 
tillage, crop rotations, use of manures, need for lime and many other 
things have been explained. Soils are being classified and mapped. Crop 
adaptation is being studied. Field experiments with fertilizers and cul- 
tural methods are being conducted extensively in every state in the Union. 
As a result of all this activity, much progress has been made and we now 
have a voluminous literature relating to the soil. The subject is recognized 
as vital to successful farming everywhere, because the soil is the founda- 
tion of all agriculture. 

1 Courteey of E. P. Dutton & Co. , New York City. From " The Soil," by HalL 



SOIL CLASSIFICATION 17 

How Soils are Formed. — Many agents are active in the formation 
of soils. Among these may be mentioned changes in temperature, the 
mechanical action of wind and water, the solvent action of water, and 
the action of bacteria, fungi and the higher forms of plants. 

The manner of formation gives rise to two general classes of soil 
known as (1) residual soils and (2) transported soils. Residual soils are 
those formed from rocks like those on which they rest, while transported 
soils are those carried some distance either by the movement of glaciers, 
or by moving water in the form of streams and tides, or by the action of 
the wind. 

Weathering and Disintegration. — Rocks absorb more or less water. 
Low temperatures cause a freezing of the water, which exerts a pressure 
approximating one ton per square inch. This ruptures the rocks, and the 
process repeated many times every year gradually reduces the portion 
subjected to these changes in temperature to fragments. Little by little 
rocks are thus reduced to soil. On the immediate surface the change in 
temperature between night and day causes expansion and contraction 
which also tends to sliver off particles of rock. The movement of soil 
particles as the result of wind and rain also tends to wear down the surface 
and break off minute particles that contribute to the process of weather- 
ing and disintegration. 

In addition to this the vegetation which gradually secures a foothold 
develops into larger plants, the roots of which penetrate the crevices, 
exerting a pressure which still further moves and often ruptures the already 
weakened rocks or fragments thereof. In this way, through generations, 
the soils are gradually formed and become incorporated with the decom- 
posed vegetation that gradually accumulates on and near the surface. 
As a further aid to the process of weathering and disintegration we find 
numerous worms and insects that burrow into the soil, living on the organic 
matter and living plants. These not only move particles of soil from 
place to place but carry the organic matter down into the soil. 

The rain which falls upon the soil is also a factor in soil formation. 
When thoroughly wet the soils expand and when quite dry they contract 
and little fissures open in the surface. A succeeding rain washes the fine 
surface particles and organic matter into the fissures and causes a gradual 
mixture of these two essential parts of the soil solids. 

Decomposition. — The processes of weathering and disintegration 
result in a change in the physical properties of the soil without necessarily 
changing the character of the compounds. Decomposition, on the other 
hand, generally results in the formation of new compounds. The proc- 
esses of decomposition are technical and we will not undertake to discuss 
them. 

What is the Soil? — The soil consists of three principal parts, namefy, 
solids, a liquid and gases. The solids consist of the minerals and the 
organic matter mingled with them. The liquid is the soil water in which 



18 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

is dissolved small quantities of various soil solids. The gases consist 
chiefly of the air intermingled with various quantities of other compounds, 
such as carbon dioxide, marsh gas, etc. 

The soil and subsoil include all material to the depth to which plant 
roots distribute themselves. It, therefore, constitutes a wide range of 
material, both in depth and character. It may be deep or shallow, loose 
or compact, wet or dry, coarse or fine in texture, having all degrees of 
variation in its physical, chemical and biological properties. 

The Soil Solids. — The solid part of the soil consists of the minerals 
and organic matter. In practically all soils the minerals form ninety-five 
per cent or more of the solids. The exception to this would be the peat 
and muck soils, which may contain as much as eighty per cent or more 
of organic matter. The mineral matter of the soil consists chiefly of the 
minute particles or fragments of the mother rock from which the soil has 
been derived. In case of residual soils this will correspond in a large 
degree to the rock formation generally found beneath the soil and subsoil 
at varying depths. In transported soils the mineral particles, having been 
transported either by water, glaciers, or wind, may have come from dif- 
ferent sources, and will generally show a greater diversity in character. 
It is significant, however, that the minerals of all soils contain all the 
essential mineral elements for plant growth, although these may vary 
widely in their relative proportions. 

The minerals of the soil are sparingly soluble in the soil water and the 
solubility is influenced by a number of factors that w r ill be discussed in a 
subsequent chapter. It is fortunate that this solubility takes place very 
slowly, otherwise soils would be dissolved and disappear in the drainage 
waters too rapidly, and the waters of the earth would become. too saline 
to be used by plant and animal life. Loss of the mineral constituents 
takes place by leaching. The drainage waters from land always contain 
a very small quantity of many of the elements of which the soil is e< 111- 
posed. Nitrogen, the most valuable decomposition product of the organic 
matter of the soil, is most rapidly leached away in the form of nitrates. 
Likewise, lime slowly disappears from the body of the soil. Limest< ae 
soils, formed from the disintegration and decomposition of limestone 
rocks, sometimes ninety per cent or more carbonate of lime, generally 
contain not more than one-half of one per cent of carbonate of lime. The 
rate of Leaching corresponds in a large measure to the rainfall of the regi< n. 
In regions of sparse rainfall very little leaching takes p'ace, and the soil 
solution frequently becomes so concentrated that the soils are known as 
alkali soils. Such soils are either bare of vegetation or produce only crops 
thai are toleranl of alkali. The soils of arid regions are as a rule very 
productive when placed under irrigation. 

The Soil Fluid. — This consists of water in which is dissolved minute 
quantities of the different minerals of the soil together with organic prod- 
ucts and gases. The soil solution moves through the soil by virtue of 



SOIL CLASSIFICATION 19 

gravity and capillarity. The water from rain passes downward by gravity. 
The rate of downward movement depends on the size of the little passage- 
ways through the soil. In fine-textured, compact soils it is often very 
slow. The depth to which it penetrates depends upon the character of 
the subsoil or underlying strata. It is frequently intercepted by impervi- 
ous layers, and consequently in times of excessive rainfall the soil becomes 
saturated and water accumulates on the surface. It then seeks an escape 
by passage over the surface and often carries with it portions of the soil, 
thus becoming a destructive agent in soil formation. In dry periods the 
surface of the soil loses its water through direct evaporation and through 
the consumption of water by the plants growing in the soil. This should 
be replaced by the water in the subsoil which returns to the surface by 
capillarity. The distance through which capillary water will rise is 
measured by a few feet. The height of rise is greatest in case of fine- 
textured soils, but in this type of soil the rate of movement is slowest. 
The rate of movement in sandy soils is much more rapid, but the height 
of rise is much less. 

Gases of the Soil. — The soil atmosphere consists of air and the gases 
resulting from decomposition of the organic solids in the soil. The domi- 
nant gas is carbon dioxide, which, dissolved in water, increases the solvent 
action of the water and helps to increase the available plant food. The 
movement of the gases in the soil is affected by changes in temperature 
which cause an expansion and contraction of their volume. It is also 
affected by the movements of soil water. As the water table in the soil 
is lowered air enters and fills up all spaces not occupied by water. The 
movement is also facilitated by changes in barometric pressure and by 
the movement of the air over the surface of the soil. Just as a strong wind 
blowing over the top of a chimney causes a strong draft in the chimney, 
so does such a wind cause a ventilation of the soil and increases the cir- 
culation of the air within the soil. 

The roots of most economic plants require oxygen and this is secured 
in properly drained and well aerated soils from the soil atmosphere. When 
soils are filled with water the plant roots have difficulty in getting the 
required supply of oxygen and the growth of the plant is retarded. A 
proper aeration of the soil is necessary to the development of microscopic 
organisms that live in great numbers in the soil and play an important 
part in making available the mineral constituents necessary for the higher 
forms of plants. It is essential that farmers understand the movement 
of water and air in the soil in order that they may do their part in bringing 
about that degree of movement that is essential to the highest productivity 
of the soil. Drainage, cultivation and the judicious selection of the crops 
grown are some of the means of influencing the movement of water and 
air in the soil. 

Soil Classification. — Science is classified knowledge. In order that 
there may be a science of the soil it becomes necessary to classify soils. 



20 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Such a classification should meet the needs of an enlightened agriculture. 
The first classification of the soils of the United Stales and ( lanada to be 
put into extensive use was thai devised by the Bureau of Soils of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, and used extensively in the 
soil survey of the United States during the past sixteen years. This 
classification is based upon factors that can be recognized in the field, and 
has for its ultimate aim the crop adaptation and management of the soil. 

Soil Surveys. — "A soil survey exists for the purpose of defining, 
mapping, classifying, correlating and describing soils. The results ob- 
tained are valuable in many ways and to men of many kinds of occupation 
and interests. To the farmer it gives an interpretation of the appearance 
and behavior of his soils, and enables him to compare his farm with ether 
farms of the same and of different soils. The soil survey report shows 
him the meaning of the comparison and furnishes a basis for working out 
a system of management that will be profitable and at the same time 
conserve the fertility of his soil. To the investor, banker, real estate 
dealer or railway official it furnishes a basis for the determination of land 
values. To the scientific investigator it furnishes a foundation knowledge 
of the soil on which can be based plans for its improvement and further 
investigation by experiment. To the colonist it furnishes a reliable 
description of the soil." 

Soils of the United States. — "For the purposes of soil classification 
the United States has been divided into thirteen subdivisions, seven of 
which, lying cast of the Great Plains, are called soil provinces, and six, 
including the Great Plains and the country west of them, are known as 
regions. 

"■A_ soi l provi nce is an area having the same general physiographic 
expression, in which the soils have been produced by the same forces or 
groups of forces and throughout which each rock or soil material yields 
to equal forces equal results. 

"A soil region differs from a soil province in being more inclusive. 
It embraces an area, the several parts of which may on further study 
resolve themselves into soil provinces. 

"Soil provinces and soil regions are essentially geographic features."* 
The soils in a province are semratcd into groups. Each group constitutes 
a Beries. A soil series is divmed finally into types. The type is deter- 
mined by texture. The texture may range from loose sands down to the 
heaviest of clays. All types in a soil region or province that are closely 
related in reference to color, drainage, character of subsoil and topog- 
raphy and are of a common origin, const it life a group or series of soils. 
A -nil type is, therefore, the unit in soil classification. "It is limited to a 
single c!as<, a single series and a single province."* 

C'assification by Texture. — The soil type of a particular series is 

♦Tlint which hi enclosed in quotation marks is quoted from U. S. Bureau of Soils Bulletin Xo. 96. 
"Soila of tin- United StuUs." 




Map Showing the Soil Provinces and Soil Re 

L9I3, i .- Dcpt. ■.■: \ ;rii ulture, Bureau of Soils. 



United States. 1 



SOIL CLASSIFICATION 



21 



based on soil texture and is determined in the laboratory by separating 
a sample into seven portions, or grades. Each portion contains soil 
particles ranging in diameter between fixed limits. This process consti- 
tutes a mechanical analysis. In such an analysis the groups and their 
diameters are as follows: 



Groups. 


Diameter in mm. 


Number of Par- 
ticles in 1 Gram. 


1 . Fine gravel 


2.000-1.000 
1.000-0.500 
0.500-0.250 
0.250-0.100 
0.100-0.050 
0.050-0.005 
0.005-0.000 


252 


2. Coarse sand 


1,723 


3. Medium sand 


13,500 


4. Fine sand 


132,600 


5. Very fine sand 

6. Silt 


1,687,000 
65,100,000 


7. Clav 


45,500,000,000 





Fifteen types of soil are possible within any soil series. The relative 
proportions of the several soil separates, given in the table above, de- 
termine the type. The twelve most important of these are known as 



Per Cent of Gravel, Sand.Silt, and Clay in 20 Grams of Subsoil 



Fine 
sand 



22.62 




Very fine 
sand 



45.47 



Silt 



10.41 



Fine 
silt 



1.36 



Clay 



2.32 



DIAMETER OF THE GRAINS IM MILLIMETERS. 



The Soil Separates as Made by Mechanical Analysis, 
Showing the Makeup of a Typical Soil. 1 

coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, coarse sandy loam, medium sandy 
loam, fine sandy loam, loam, silt loam, clay loam, sandy clay, silt clay and 
■clay. They range from light to heavy in the order named, and, except 



1 CoiJ r r,t.esy of Oray^e Judd Company. From "Soils and Crops," by Hunt and Burkett. 



22 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



as influenced by presence of organic matter, their water-holding capacity 
varies directly with the increase in fineness of texture, the sand having 
the smallest water-holding capacity and the silty clays and clays the largest. 

In classifying soils in the field the soil expert determines the type by 
the appearance and feel of the soil. He takes numerous samples which 
are sent to the laboratory where they are subjected to a mechanical analysis 
in order to verify his judgment and field classification. 

The accompanying map shows the extent and location of the several 
soil provinces and regions in the United States. 

Crop Adaptation. — That certain soils under definite climatic conditions 
are best adapted to certain plants is obvious to anyone who has studied 




Inspecting and Sampling the Soil. 



different soils under field conditions. The marked variation in the char- 
acter of vegetation is often made use of in defining the boundaries of soil 
types and soil series. Adaptation is also manifest in the behavior of 
cultivated crops. Among our well-known crops tobacco is the most 
susceptible to changes in character of soil, and we find that a specific 
type of tobacco can be grown to perfection only on a certain type of soil, 
while a very different type of tobacco demands an entirely different type 
of soil for its satisfactory growth. The red soils of the Orangeburg series 
in Texas will produce an excellent quality of tobacco, whereas the Norfolk 
series with gray surface soil and yellow subsoil, occurring in the same 
general locality, gives very unsatisfactory results with the same variety of 
tobacco. This difference in the tobacco is not due to the texture of the 
soil, since soil of the same texture can readily be selected in both of these 
series. The most casual observer cannot fail to distinguish the difference 
between the Norfolk and Orangeburg soils, as manifested chiefly in their 
color. 



SOIL CLASSIFICATION 23 

The question of crop adaptation, therefore, becomes exceedingly 
important, and success with a crop in which quality plays an important 
part will be determined to a large extent by whether or not it is produced 
on the soil to which it is by nature best adapted. 

Variety tests of wheat afford further illustration of crop adaptation. 
In Illinois the wheat giving the highest yield on the black prairie soil of 
the central and northern part of the state is Turkey Red, but this variety 
when grown on the light-colored soil in the southern part of the state 
yielded five bushels per acre less than the variety Harvest King. It is 
evident, therefore, that if Turkey Red, which was demonstrated to be 
the best variety at the experiment station, had been planted over the 
wheat-growing region of the southern part of the state, farmers of that 
region would have suffered a considerable loss. In Pennsylvania and 
North Carolina Turkey Red has been grown in variety tests, and found 
to be one of the lowest yielding varieties. For example, the yield in North 
Carolina, as an average of four years, was only 8.4 bushels per acre as 
compared with 13.5 bushels for Dawson's Golden Chaff. At the Pennsyl- 
vania Station the yield for two years was 26.5 bushels per acre for Turkey 
Red and 37.5 bushels for Dawson's Golden Chaff. 

Similar observations have been made relative to varieties of cotton 
and varieties of apples. There is no doubt but that the question of varie- 
tal adaptation, with reference to all of the principal crops, is important, 
and it should be the business of farmers in their community to ascertain 
the varieties of the crops grown which are best adapted to local conditions. 

Dr. J. A. Bonsteel, born and reared on a New York farm, and for 
fifteen years a soil expert in the U. S. Bureau of Soils, prepared for the 
Tribune Farmer in the early part of 1913 a series of articles on "Fitting 
Crops to Soils." The following is a portion of his summary and is a 
concise statement of the soil adaptation of the fifteen leading crops in the 
northeastern part of the United States. 

"Summary of Soil Adaptedness. — Summarizing, briefly, the facts 
stated in the articles and derived from a large number of field observations 
made in all parts of the northeastern portion of the United States, we see : 

"First. — Clay soils are best suited to the production of grass. i>They 
are suited to the growing of wheat when well drained and of cabbages 
under favorable local conditions of drainage and market. Oats may be 
grown, but thrive better upon more friable soils. 

"Second. — Clay loam soils are especially well suited to the growing 
of grass, wheat, beans and cabbages, the latter two only when well drained. 

"Third. — Silt loam soils produce wheat, oats, buckwheat, late 
potatoes, corn, onions and celery. The last two crops require special 
attention to drainage and moisture supply to be well suited to silt loam 
soils. 

"Fourth. — Loam soils, which are the most extensively developed of 
any group in the Northeastern states, are also suited to the widest range of 



24: SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

crops. These are wheat, oats, corn, buckwheat, late potatoes, barley, rye, 
grass, alfalfa and beans. 

"Fifth. — The sandy loam soils are best suited for the growing of 
barley, rye, beans, early potatoes, and, under special conditions of loca- 
tion near to water level, of onions and celery. 

"Sixth. — Sandy soils are best adapted to the early potatoes grown 
as market garden or truck crops, and to rye. 

"This summary takes into consideration only the texture of the 
soil and its adaptations under fair conditions of drainage, organic matter 
content and average skill in treatment. 

"Yet the articles have called special attention to certain other 
features than those of soil texture. Otherwise, the specific naming of the 
different loam soils would not have been given. 

"The noteAvorthy lime content of the soils of the Dunkirk, Ontario, 
Cazenovia, Dover and Hagerstown loams has been made evident as a 
basis for the profitable growing of alfalfa, since the plant is known to be 
particularly sensitive to the amount of lime contained in the soil. 

"Similarly the production of the late or staple potato crop has been 
netted upon soils which are particularly well supplied with organic matter 
as in the case of the Caribou loam and the Volusia loam. Other loams 
and silt loams produce good crops of potatoes upon individual farms 
where there is an unusually good supply of organic matter in the soil, 
but not on portions of the other types not so well supplied. Good organic 
matter content is rather a general characteristic of a good potato soil and 
is found on the types named. 

"Beans may be grown upon a large number of different soils if the 
farmer is satisfied with average crops. But the best bean crops are secured 
from soils which are well supplied both with organic matter and with lime. 
1 If nee, the ( Jlyde loam and clay loam and the soils of the Dunkirk series 
are among the best bean soils. 

"It is still impossible to state precisely what varieties of the different 
crops are best suited to a particular soil, yet I hope to see the time when 
there will be special breeding of staple crops to meet the different con- 
ditions which prevail upon different soils. Some time there will be strains 
of wheat, of corn, of oats, of alfalfa and of other field crops which have 
been developed for generations upon a specific type of soil and which 
excel all other strains of the crop for that soil. This is inevitable in time, 
since the characteristics of plants may be fixed by growing them under 
the same conditions of soil and climate for many plant generations. 

"There are certain broad generalizations in crop adaptation which 
are very generally known. bu1 may profitably be stated again. 

"The friable loam is the great soil texture of the temperate, humid 
regions, possessing the broadest crop adaptations, and usually the mest 
permanent natural fertility of all soils. 

"As any departure is made from the loam texture there is a restriction 



SOIL CLASSIFICATION ,25 

in the number of the different crops which may be grown upon this type, 
and frequently in the yields of the common crops, which may be expected, 
The crop range in number of kinds best grown usually decreases in both 
directions, becoming decidedly limited at a rapid rate in the case of more 
sandy soils, and at a less rapid rate in the case of the clay loams and clays. 
This expresses moisture control. It has been more difficult to control 
moisture in the sandy soils than in the clay loams and clays. Irrigation 
is the answer to the difficulty with the sands, and drainage with the 
clays. 

"Leguminous crops of all descriptions are particularly favored by 
a high lime content in both soil and subsoil. 

" Soils well supplied with organic matter atone for some other soil 
deficiencies in texture and structure. 

"Compacted layers of any kinds beneath the surface soil are un- 
favorable to crop production. This applies to compacted subsoil, due to 
shallow plowing, as well as to actual 'hard-pan.' 

"Good soil management always increases the range of crops which 
may be grown as well as the amounts harvested. Man's ingenuity may 
be used profitably to overcome nature's deficiencies. 

"Eastern Soils Not Worn Out. — Finally, I wish to state as a result 
of years of observation under widely varying circumstances of soil study 
and of farming: 

"I. That the soils of the Northeastern states are in nowise 'worn out' 
or seriously depleted of anything essential to good crop production with 
the local exception of organic matter in the surface soil. 

"II. That the majority of soils of the Northeastern states are capable 
of producing average crops or greater if given fair treatment, especially 
when the proper crops for the climate and the soil are selected for plant- 
ing and others are discarded. 

"III. That soils which have been called 'worn out' have frequently 
revived within a period of five years or less of good farming methods, 
until their yields equaled or exceeded any production before known upon 
that soil. 

"IV. That the best methods of crop growing and of soil management 
now practiced by the best farmers of the Northeastern states would, if 
made general in their application, more than double the total cropping 
ability of the improved lands now in use. 

"V. That the market facilities of the Northeastern states are now 

and will continue to become more and more favorable to the intensive 

use of land and to the man who uses each acre for the crop or group of 

crops best suited to his soil and climate. 

********* 

"To the young farmers who are to carry on the great work of redeem- 
ing land and of feeding people I have just one more thing to say. Study 
the fundamental principles, which are true in Asia or the United States; 



20 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



true today and for the centuries to come; true for all crops and for all 
seasons. The details of modifying these principles of agriculture, ex- 
perience alone can teach you." 



Son. Adaptation op Fifteen Crops Common to Northeastern States. 



Apples. 



Soils Best Sitted To. 



Ways of Modifying Soils 
to Fit Crops. 



Clay and silt loams containing 
considerable lime. Surface soil 

friable. Subsoils of same nature, 
but heavier and more compacted. 



Use manure liberally. Practice 
rotation with leguminous crops. 
Apply moderate amounts of lime. 



Wide adaptation. Loams or 
heavy loams rather fine in texture 
best. Avoid dry sands. Plenty 
of humus desirable. 



Apply manure to crop preced- 
ing. Turn under green manure. 
Plow only moderately deep. Seed 



Fertilizers to Apply. 



Principally phospbatic fertilizers 
containing small amounts of nitro- 
gen and potash. 



early in spring, 
thoroughly. 



Always use some form of phos- 
phate, preferably acid phosphate 
or basic slag. Use small amounts 



Prepare land \ of potash, usually muriate. 



W< U-drained, sandy loams give Smaller amounts of humus ne- About same as wheat. Little 

the longest, brightest straw and cessary. Will grow on more acid lime needed, 

largest crops of grain. Will do soils than wheat or oats. Fine 

fairly will on lighter and poorer general utility crop. 
upland soils. 



Will-drained fertile loam. Inter- 
mediate between rye and oat soils. 
Heavy loams give best yields. 
Sandy loams give brighter grain. 
Avoid clay on account of lodging 
and too light sand because of 
drought. 



Moderately friable loam, under- 
, compacted but well-drained 
loamy subsoils. 



dy or sandy loam preferably 
for early crop. Silt loam or loam 
lust for late. Avoid clay and clay 
loams. 



Loam or silt loam, with heavier 

il at least ten inches below 

surface. Where seasons arc short, 

sandy or gravelly loams give larger 

\i< Ids, because of earlier maturity. 



Loam or clay loam best. Heavy 
SOUS retain moisture best. Avoid 

mpacted clays or hardpans. 
Timothy: Loam or well-drained 
i lay loam or clay. 



Very fertile, well-drained, alka- 
line soils. Strong loams contain- 
ing lin.i \void shallow 
nd hardpans near BUrface, 



Wide range of soils. Best re- 
sults on types not more coarse 
I than sandy loam or more 
ted than clay loam. Lime- 
bearing soils best. 



Fairly deep, well-drained loams 
and clay and i-ilt loams wit] 
-• ion of sand in surbr 

; b native of mois- 
ture, but not impervious to water. 



Requires moderate amount of 
humus. Avoid too rich soils on 
account of lodging. Good drainage 
essential. 



Will do well on rather poor, thin 
hill lands, because of power to 
loosen pulverized soil. Prepare 
laud thoroughly, providing organic 
matter. Good drainage necessary. 



Thorough drainage essential 
Abundant organic matter needed. 
Grow in rotation and turn under 
green manures. 



WCU-drained, moisture-holding 
lands. Turn under good grass sod 
or preferably clover sod. Apply 
barnyard manure to previous crop 

if possible. 



Use stable manure on preceding 
crop. Apply lime in mest cases. 
See that both surface and subsoil 
are well drained. Prepare land 
very thoroughly for seeding. 



Drain soil thoroughly. Stand- 
ing water fatal to alfalfa. Apply 
lime liberally. Inoculate soil. 



Must be well drained and well 
supplied with organic matter. If 
soils do not contain limestone give 
moderate application of lime. 



1 1 soils are thoroughly 
drained. Apply moderate amounts 
of manure. Plow \inder legumin- 



About same as oats. 



Complete fertilizer. 



Apply large amounts of fertilizer 
high in potash. Small amounts 
of nitrogen for late crops. More 
on sandy soils. Avoid liming im- 
mediately ahead of potatoes. 



Use 200 to 500 lbs. of fertilizer 
containing 3 to 4 per cent of nitro- 
gen. 8 to 12 per cent phosphoric 
acid, 3 to 4 per cent potash. 



Stable manure best fertilizer; 
100 to 300 lbs. an acre of complete 
fertilizer. High in nitrogen (8 to 
10 per cent). Gives good results. 



Top dress with stable manure or 
with 300 to 400 lbs. of acid phos- 
phate or 400 to 600 lbs. basic slag, 
or 200 lbs. or more of steamed bone 
meal an acre. 



Fertilize with 200 to 300 lbs. an 

acre of mixture containing 2 per 

cent nitrogen. 8 to 12 per cent 

Olio a<id. 4 to 6 per cent 

potash. Use stable manure. 



Depends on soils and variety. 
On heavier soils none may be needed 
except stablp manure, which is al- 
ous cover crop. In general give j ways best. Experiment with corn- 
thorough cultivation in early part menial fertilizers. 
of the season. 



SOIL CLASSIFICATION 



27 



Soil Adaptation of Fifteen Crops Common to Northeastern States (Continued). 



Crops. 


. Soils Best Suited To. 


Wats of Modifying Soils 
to Fit Crops. 


Fertilizers to Apply 


Cabbage. 


Heavy loam or silt loam, with 
retentive subsoils. Muck soils 
generally well suited if not too 
loose. 


See that soil is well supplied 
with organic matter. Apply lime 
liberally to surface of soil. Grow 
crop in rotation. 


Apply complete fertilizer, high in 
potash and moderately high in 
nitrogen, in liberal amounts. 


Celery. 


Muck soils best adapted. Silty 
river flood plains and silty or fine 
silty uplands, high in organic mat- 
ter, will do. 


Soil must be moist, but well 
drained and well supplied with or- 
ganic matter. Lime and salt both 
affect celery favorably. 


Fertilize heavily with stable man- 
ure where possible. Large amounts 
of commercial fertilizer, rich in 
nitrogen, can be applied profitably. 


Onioas. 


Sandy loam just above water 
level, protected from overflow and 
well supplied with moisture. 
Strong, well-drained muck land 
tilled two or three years. 


Must be well drained. Large 
amounts of organic matter neces- 
sary. Lime gives good results. 
Crop rotation or alternation desir- 
able. 


Stable manure and high grade 
commercial fertilizers must be abun- 
dantly supplied for continued large 
yields. 


Tobacco. 


Many grades of soil from light 
silt to heavy loams suitable, de- 
pending on grade of leaf desired. 


Must be well drained. High in 
organic matter. Very thoroughly 
prepared soil and constant cultiva- 
tion necessary. 


Depends on kind of soil and type 
of leaf being grown. Usually re- 
quires large amounts of potash de- 
rived from sulphate. Liming 
usually thickens leaf and makes 
it harsh. 



Following the plan of Dr. Bonsteel, the author has gone carefully- 
through the soil literature of the United States and summarized the crop 
adaptations, the means of modifying soils and the fertilizers to apply 
to them. This is given for the leading crops by regions as follows: (1) 
The North Central region, covered mostly by the Glacial and Glacial 
lake soils lying between Pennsylvania and the Dakotas, and north of the 
Ohio and Missouri Rivers; (2) the South Central and South Atlantic 
Coast region, comprising Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, 
Kentucky and the Cotton Belt ; (3) the Plains and Mountain region west 
of the 97th meridian of longitude; and (4) the Pacific Coast region, in- 
cluding the three coast states and most of Nevada. 

The following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of 
the North Central region: 

Sand. — Good for very early truck and small truits; fair for sugar 
beets and poor for small grains. May be kept in grass to prevent drifting. 

Sandy Loam. — Good for tobacco, truck, apples, beans, root crops, 
fruit, and fair for hay, small grains and corn. 

Loam. — Good for general crops, truck and fruit. 

Silt Loam. — Finest corn soil ; good for small grains, hay, fruit, tobacco 
and heavy truck, such as cabbage./ 

Clay Loam. — Best wheat soil; good for corn, oats, rye, barley, grass, 
clover, alfalfa and fruit. 

Clay. — Good for hay, small grains, export tobacco, some fruit and 
small fruit. (For continuation see next page.) 

The following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of 
the South Centraland South Atlantic Coast region: 

Sand. — Adapted to earliest vegetables, some fruits and some varieties 
of grapes. Small grains may be grown, but do better on heavier soils. 



28 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Soil Adaptation of the Leading Crops of the North Central Region. 



Cbopb. 801 i.s Best Suited To. 


Wats or Modifying Soils 
to Fit Crops. 


Fertilizers to Applt. 


Corn. 


Loam or silt loam. Deep soil 
with heavy subsoil. For short 
season, sandy loam. 


Well - drained moisture - holding 
lands. Turn under good grass or 
clover sod. Apply barnyard man- 
ure. 


Phosphoric acid and legumes. 
Use lime on sour soils. 


Wheat. 


Clay or silt loam. Deep soil 
well supplied with humus. Sub- 
soil, heavier clay. 


Rotate with legumes and hoed 
crops. Add organic matter as 
manure or green manure when 
available. 


Small to moderate amounts of 
fertilizers high in phosphoric acid, 
and with small amounts of nitrogen 
and potash. For western portion, 
phosphoric acid only. 


Oats. 


Any soil but light sand. Loam 
or silt loam best. Good supply 
of humus desirable. 


Should follow hoed crops, usu- 
ally corn. Prepare seed bed by 
.disking, seed early, drilling prefer- 
able. 


Manure or fertilizer should be 
applied to preceding crop. On 
poor soils, small amounts of phos- 
phorus and nitrogen may be used. 


Rye. 


Sandy loam or loam; must be 
well drained. 


Good crop for poor land; will 
stand considerable acid. 


About same as wheat. Does not 
need much lime. 


Barley. 


Loam to clay loam. Clay causes 
lodging. Heavy soils give larger 
yields; light soils brighter straw. 


Moderate amounts of humus. 
Must be well drained. Too rich 
soils will cause lodging. 


About same as oats. 


Buck- 
wneat. 


Loam with well-drained loamy 
subsoil. 


Good pulverizer, hence will do 
well on rather poor soil. Good 
drainage essential. Add organic 
matter. 


A minor crop, seldom fertilized. 
Small amounts of complete fer- 
tilizer advised for poor soils. 




S:mdy loam or loam; avoid 
heavy soils. 


Fall plow; use winter cover crop 
and turn under. Grow in rota- 
tion. Thorough drainage needed. 


Do not lime immediately before 
potatoes. Apply fertilizer high in 
potassium. 


Hay, 

Timothy. 


\\ ide variety of soils. Loam to 
clay loam best. 


Drain land, top dress with man- 
ure; small applications spread 
uniformly. 


Top dress beginning of second 
year with small amounts of com- 
plete fertilizer high in nitrogen. 


Alfalfa. 


Rather heavy soil but must be 
deep and well drained. 


Plow deep and inoculate soil. 


Use good supply mineral fertilizer 
and lime. 


Beans. 


Sandy loam and clay loam best. 


Apply manure and drain. 


Moderate amounts complete fer- 
tilizer high in phosphoric acid and 
potash. Apply lime. 


Apples. 


Loamy soil best; must be quite 
deep and well drained. Avoid 
poor air drainage. 


Sow to cover crop, preferably 
to legume in fall; plow under in 
spring and cultivate clean during 
early summer. 


Depends on soil. On good soils, 
none needed for several years. Ex- 
periment. 


Heavy 

Truck — 

Celery, etc. 


Heavy loams or muck soils, high 
in organic matter. 


Use plenty of stable manure. 


Complete fertilizer high in nitro- 
gen. Also lime. 


Other 

Truck— 
Lettuce, 

etc. 


1 lit soils, sandy for very early 
markets; sandy loam and loam 
for later crops. 


Must be prepared to irrigate 
sand. Apply lots of manure. 
Rotation desirable. 


High grade complete fertilizer. 
High nitrogen content for leaf 
crops, as lettuce. 


Tobacco. 


For arette tobacco, 
sand; for wrapper, sandy loam; 
for filler and export grade, heavier 
soils. 


Prepare soil thoroughly and cul- 
tivate frequently. Must have high 
organic content and be well drained 
for best results. 


Avoid lime, as it thickens leaf. 
Kind of fertilizer depends on the 
soil. Usually large amounts of 
potassium sulphate. 


Plums, 
Cherries, 
Small 
Fruits. 


Sand and sandy loam. Provide 
for good air drainage in order to 
avoid danger from frost. 


Use leguminous cover crops for 
winter. Clean cultivation in sum- 
mer. 


Varies with soil and location. 
Experiment. 



Sandy Loam. — "Bright" tobacco, mid-season truck, peanuts, forage 
crops and cotton and small grains to some extent. 

Loam. — Cotton, tobacco, main crop truck, corn, small grains, sugar 



SOIL CLASSIFICATION 



29 



cane, fruit and small fruit, legumes for hay or cover crops, rice and nursery 
stock. 

Silt Loam. — Cotton, tobacco, truck for canning, corn, small grains, 
hay and pasturage, tree and small fruits. 

Clay Loam. — Cotton, export tobacco, corn, small grains, very good 
for grazing, fruit, rice, flax, hemp, etc. 

Clay. — Rice, sugar cane, export tobacco, forage crops, hay and fruit. 



Soil Adaptation of the Leading Crops of the South Central and South Atlantic 

Coast Region. 



Crops. 


Soils Best Suited To. 


Ways of Modipting Soils 
to Fit Crops. 


Fertilizers to Apply. 


Cotton. 


Loam or silt loam. 


Fall plow, cultivate frequently, 
rotate with legumes. 


Add manure and other forms of 
organic matter. Complete fertilizer. 


Corn. 


Any soil but very light sand and 
heavy clay. Best on loam. 


Plow deep and rotate. 


Complete fertilizer high in phos- 
phoric acid. Also plenty of organic 
matter. Add lime. 


Tobacco. 


Varies with kind of tobacco 
grown. (See North Central Re- 
gion.) 


Frequent, careful cultivation and 
cover crop in winter to prevent 
erosion. Rotate with legume. 


Do not lime light tobacco. Avoid 
muriate of potash in fertilizer. 


Sugar 
Cane. 


Loam to clay; best on clay 
loam. Soil must be rich. 


Drain when needed; add or- 
ganic matter. 


Heavy complete fertilizer. 


Truck. 


Sand for extra early, loam for 
main crop. 


Must be well drained and have 
abundant supply of humus. 


High grade complete fertilizer. 


Rice. 


Clay or clay loam; heavy sub- 
soil essential. 


Must be able to flood at proper 
time and drain at proper time. 


Plow deep and add lime. 


Peaches, 
Plums, 
Cherries, 
Small 

Fruits. 


Sand or sandy loam. 


Use cover crops to prevent 
washing, legumes best. 


Varies with location, climate and 
crop. Experiment. 


Forage 

Crops — 
Millet, 
Sorghum, 
etc. 


Clay loam or clay. 


Plow deep, use winter cover 
crop. 


Complete fertilizer and manure, 
or green manure. 


Grapes. 


Varies with variety from sand 
to clay. 


Add organic matter. 


Varies with soil. Experiment. 


Peanuts. 


Sandy loam. 


Organic matter and fall plowing. 


Mineral fertilizers. 


Annual 

Legumes, 
Cowpeas, 
Soy Beans, 
etc. 


Sandy loam to clays. 


Plow deep, give good cultiva- 
tion. Good for interplanting with 
cotton or corn. 


Mineral fertilizers and lime. 



Plains and Mountain Region. — Most of this region is semi-arid to 
arid and used largely as pasture, but where transportation and water are 
available, very good crops may be grown by the aid of irrigation. The 
following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of the Plains 
and Mountain region: 

Sand. — Is the predominating soil and care must be taken to prevent 
its drifting. It gives fair crops of truck, fruit, cotton, Kaffir, sorghum, 
wheat, oats and hay. 



30 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Sandy Loam. — Docs not drift quite so badly. On it may be grown 
truck, fruit, cotton, Kaffir, sorghum, milo, sugar beets, wheat and alfalfa. 
It also gives good pasturage. 

Loam. — Is about the most productive soil. It is good for broom- 
corn, sorghum, milo, truck, sugar beets and, in the South, cotton. In the 
Central States small grains and forage crops; and in the North, wheat, 
oats, flax and millet. 

Silt Loam. — Is not quite so good as loam, but is used for about the 
same crops. 

Clay Loam. — Is very hard to handle and not very productive. It is 
used for general crops and special local crops. 

Clay. — Very hard to manage to prevent puddling. It is used to some 
extent for general crops, but chiefly for grazing. 

Soil Adaptation of the Leading Crops of the Plains and Mountain 

Region. 



CROP8. 


Soils Best Sctted To. 


Wats of Modifying Soils 
to Fit Crops. 


Fertilizers to Applt. 


Cotton. 


Loam. 


Irrigate. 


Manure and complete fertilizer. 


Corn. 


Loam to clay loam. 


Plant with lister. Manure, 
cultivate frequently. 


Fertilizer seldom used. 


Small 
Grains. 


Silt loam. 


Add organic matter. 


Fertilizer seldom used. 


Hay and 
Pasturage 


Most any soil with enough 
water. 


Do not pasture too closely or 
when wet. 




Sugar 
Beets. 


Sandy loam and loam. 


Irrigate, plow deeply and give 
clean cultivation. 


Complete fertilizer. 


Forage 
Crops — 

Kaffir. 

Sorghum, 

Millet. 


Loam best, but will grow in wide 
range of soils. 


Plow deeply, give thorough cul- 
tivation. Do not plant too early. 




Alfalfa. 


Sandy loam to clay. 


Plow deeply; irrigate. Seed and] 
light crops of hay produced with- 
out irrigation. 





Pacific Coast Region. — This region is in most places almost arid. 
With the aid of irrigation it becomes one of the garden spots of the coun- 
try. The following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of 
the Pacific Coast region: 

Sand. — Used for early truck, figs, stone fruits, citrus fruits and some 
of the small fruits. It requires large amounts of water and frequent 
cultivation to conserve moisture. 

Sandy Loam. — Used for most of the fruits grown in this region, also 
grapes, small fruits, alfalfa and, to some extent, general crops. This soil 
is quite light and requires much the same care as sand. 

Loam. — Used for fruit, late truck, small fruit, grapes, hops, hay and 
general crops. 



SOIL CLASSIFICATION 



31 



Silt Loam.— Used for fruit (including citrus fruit), small fruit, heavy 
truck, English walnuts. 

Clay Loam. — Used for fruit, small fruit, truck for canning, and general 
crops. This soil is much used in southern California for citrus groves and 
lima beans. 

Clay. — Grains and hay, some heavy truck and tree fruit. 

Soil Adaptation of the Leading Crops of the Pacific Coast Region. 



Crops. 


Soils Best Suited To. 


Wats of Modifying Soils 
to Fit Crops. 


Fertilizers to Apply. 


Truck. 


Sandy loam for early; silt or 
clay loam for late. 


Add lots of organic matter. 


Depends on crop and soil. 


Fruit. 


Any soil; loam or silt loam best 
for most fruits. 


Practice clean cultivation to pre- 
vent evaporation. Add organic 
matter. 


Varies with kind of fruit. 


Grapes. 


Sandy loam or loam. 


Same as for fruit. | Complete fertilizer. 


Small 
Fruit. 


Sandy loam to silt loam. 


Same as for fruit. 


Experiment. 


English 
Walnut. 


Silt loam. 


Cultivate clean in dry season, 
but grow cover crop in rainy sea- 
son, and plow under. 




General 

Crops — 
Grains, 
Hay. 


Any of the heavier soils. 


Give soil thorough preparation 
before planting and cultivate wher- 
ever possible. 


Complete fertilizer. 



Aids to Solution of Soil Problems. — The soil survey conducted by 
the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, in 
co-operation with the various state departments of agriculture or agri- 
cultural experiment stations, is now extended into many counties in every 
state. Two kinds of surveys have been made: (1) that known as the 
reconnoissance soil survey, in which detailed mapping is not undertaken 
(it consists chiefly in mapping the soil series) ; and (2) a detailed county 
survey showing the location and extent of each soil type. The results 
of this work are issued as government reports, accompanied by colored 
maps outlining the soils. In these reports the soils are fully described 
and their crop adaptations stated. Much other valuable data pertaining 
to agricultural conditions, climate and soil requirements are also given. 
These reports are available to all farmers living in the districts in which 
the surveys are made. They may be secured either through the local 
senator or representative, or directly from the National Department of 
Agriculture. In some cases the state experiment station or state depart- 
ment of agriculture will be able to supply them. 

The detailed county surveys will enable any one in such an area to 
ascertain the types of soil on his farm. If there is any doubt in this partic- 
ular on the part of the farmer, he can submit samples of his soil to his 
state experiment station, and by giving the exact location of his farm, 
the authorities at the station will be able to advise him not only as to the 



32 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

type <>f his soil, bu1 in a general way can give him facts concerning crop 
adaptation and the treatmenl mosl likely to bring good results. 

Samples of soil should accurately represent the field from which 
taken. Samples should be taken to the depth of plowing in not less than 
ten places in the field. These may be put together and thoroughly mixed. 
A pound of this mixture sent to the experiment station 
by parcel post will meet the requirements. It is frequently 
desirable also to send a sample of the subsoil. If there is 
no great hurry it will be better to write to the experiment 
station first and ask for instruction on collecting and send- 
ing samples. 

The soil auger is most convenient for taking 51 il 
samples. It consists of an ordinary lj^-inch wo< d auger 
having the shank lengthened and the threaded screw and 
sharp lips removed. Any blacksmith can do the work in a 
few minutes. The accompanying figure shows a three-foot 
auger with gas pipe handle. For a farmer's use the wooden 
handle will serve just as well. If an auger is not availa- 
ble, a square-pointed spade will serve very well for taking 
samples. Dig a hole to the depth of plowing, having cne 
perpendicular side, then cut from the perpendicular side a 
slice of uniform thickness from top to bottom. This re- 
peated in ten or more places in the field will give a sample 
representing the soil accurately. 

Because of the difficulty on the part of the experiment 
station authorities in giving definite advice at long range, 
A Soil Auger. 1 some f these institutions now employ experts who travel 
about the state, inspect farms and consult with farmers rela- 
tive to their soil problems as well as other problems of the farm. By 
such inspection these men are able to advise more definitely than can be 
done by letter. 

In the last few years another innovation for the benefit of the farmers 
has been introduced, namely, the providing of the county farm adviser, 
who is located within a county permanently and who soon becomes familiar 
with the agricultural problems of his restricted territory. Through these 
sources the farmer can always secure able assistance in the solution not 
Only of his soil problems, but of all problems that concern his business. 

REFERENCES 

•'Soils: Mow f.» Handle and Improve Them." Fletcher. 

"Soils." Lyon and Fippin. 

"Soils." Burkett. 

Pennsylvania Agricultural Expt. Station Bulletin 132. "Soils of Pennsylvania." 

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 228 "Farm Crops." 

Farmers' Bulletin .No. 194, Q. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Lawn Soils and Lawns." 

Courtesy of The Macmillan Co., N. Y. From" How t<> Choose a. Farm," by Hunt. 



CHAPTER 2 

Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties 

Texture of Soil. — Texture pertains to the size of the mineral particles 
that make up the body of the soil. In the laboratory, texture is deter- 
mined by a mechanical analysis. This is described in Chapter 1. The 
clay portion of a soil will range anywhere from a fraction of one per cent 
to as high as fifty per cent of the body of the soil. The particles of clay 
are so small that they can be seen only by the use of a high-power micro- 
scope. When clay is thoroughly mixed with water the particles will 
remain in suspension for several days. It is this clay that is chiefly re- 
sponsible for the turbid condition of the streams of water flowing from 
the land after heavy rains. Clay, when thoroughly wet and rubbed 
between the thumb and finger, has a smooth, greasy feel. 

The silt may also range from a very small percentage to sixty per 
cent or more of the body of the soil. It forms the group of particles next 
larger than clay. It produces practically no perceptibly gritty feel when 
wet and rubbed between the thumb and finger. Silt particles will remain 
in suspension in water for only a short time, seldom more than one-half 
hour. 

The various grades of sand consist of particles very much larger than 
those of either clay or silt, and can be seen with the naked eye. The per- 
centage of sand in soils like that of clay and silt varies between wide 
ranges. Sandy soils may contain seventy-five per cent to ninety per cent 
of the different grades of sand. All of the sandy soils give a distinctly 
gritty feel when the wet soil is rubbed between the thumb and finger. 

Water-Holding Capacity of Soils.— The texture of the soil is very 
important and determines in a large degree the water-holding capacity 
of the soil, the rapidity of movement of water and air in the soil, the 
penetration of plant roots, ease of cultivation and, above all, the crop 
adaptation of the soil. Texture is determined by the relative amounts of 
the particles that fall into the several groups mentioned. The textural 
effect is modified by the structure of the soil (discussed later) and its 
content of organic matter. 

The larger the proportion of fine particles, such as clay and silt, the 
greater is the surface area of these particles in a unit volume of soil. In 
a well-drained soil all gravitational water passes away and only capillary 
water is retained. This capillary w^ter consists of very thin films of water 
adhering to the surface of the soifparticles and surrounding them in such 
a way as to make a continuous film of water in the soil. Through this 
continuity of the film, water moves by capillarity from a point where the 

(33) 



34 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



isjuAig 



films are thickest to a point where they are thinner, tending always to 

equality in the thickness of the 
film, hut gradually becoming thin- 
ner as the distance from the 
source of water increases. 

It is evident, then 'fore, that 
the fine-textured soil will hold 
much more water than the one 
consisting largely of sand. Such a 
soil can supply crops with more 
water than a sandy soil, and such 
a soil is adapted to grass, wheat 
and other plants having fibrous 
roots that do not penetrate to 
great depths. 

If a glass tumbler is filled 
with water and emptied, a thin 
film of the liquid adheres to the 
surface. This will equal only a 
fraction of one per cent of the 
weight of the tumbler. If the 
tumbler can be pulverized into a 
very fine powder and the particles 
saturated with water and allowed 
to drain, they may hold water to 
the extent of ten to fifteen per 
cent of the weight of the glass. 
This change in the water-holding 
power is the result of pulveriza- 
tion and especially of the increase 
of the exposed surface which is 
brought in contact with the liquid. 
The finer the- degree of pulveri- 
zation the larger the percentage 
of water the glass particles will 
retain. So we find thai soils of 
very fine texture will s< mm times 
hold as much as forty per cent 
of their weight of water, while 
some of the coarse, sandy soils 
will not hold more than four or 
five per cent of their weight of water. This water-holding capacity of 
the soilis also modified by its content of organic matter. Organic matter 




12 uas. 



Rate and Height of Capillary Rise op 

WaTEH IN Soils OF DIFFERENT TEXTURE. 1 



•Courtesy of The Macmillas Company, X. V. From " Soils," by Ililyard. 



PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 35 

will absorb from two to four times its own weight of water. The sponge 
best illustrates the capacity of organic matter to absorb and hold water. 

Water Movement in Soil.— The movement of water in the soil is 
influenced chiefly by soil texture. In soils of coarse texture the water 
moves very freely. Drainage is rapid and the soils dry soon after rains 
so that tillage operations may soon be resumed. On such soils there is 
generally little loss of time during the period when they need tillage. 
On very heavy soils, that is, on those consisting chiefly of clay and silt 
particles, the movement of water within the body of the soil is exceedingly 
slow. Drainage is difficult, and where the land is level and the sub- 
stratum is dense, underdrainage is often required in order to make the 
soils productive. In sandy soils the rainfall penetrates and descends 
rapidly through the soil body. In this kind of soil leaching is rather 
rapid. Rain penetrates heavy soils very slowly, and if the rainfall is rapid, 
its passing from the surface of the soil causes severe erosion. Further- 
more, a large proportion of the rainfall is thus lost and in no way benefits 
the growing plants. On the part of the farmer it therefore becomes 
essential so to plow and cultivate the fine-textured, heavy soil as to in- 
crease its penetrability and facilitate the movement of air and water and 
the penetration of roots as much as possible. In case of the very sandy 
soil it is often advisable to do just the reverse. Applications of lime, 
which tend to cement the particles together, and of organic matter to fill 
up the interspaces, and compacting the soil by rolling to reduce the spaces, 
are often resorted to. Where land has a high value it may even pay to add 
clay to a sandy soil in order to improve its physical properties. On the 
other hand, it may sometimes pay to add sand to a very heavy, clay soil. 
Such practice, however, is justifiable only in case of land of high value 
when used for intensive cropping. 

Absorption of Fertilizers. — The absorptive power of the soil is also 
proportional to the surface area of the particles within a unit volume. 
Soils of fine texture are, therefore, capable of absorbing and holding much 
larger amounts of fertilizers than those that are sandy. This is very 
important in connection with the application of fertilizers. It is also 
true that the soil absorption is much stronger for some substances than it 
is for others, and this will often determine the time of application of fertil- 
izers. The absorptive power of the soil is less marked for nitrogen, either 
as ammonia or nitrates, than it is for either potash or phosphorus. Con- 
sequently, nitrogenous fertilizers should be used in quantities just suffi- 
cient to meet the needs of the crop, and applied just preceding the time 
at which the crop most needs it. In view of this fact, surface applications 
of nitrogen are often effective, since the downward movement of the 
material in the soil soon brings it into the region of root activity. 

Potash and phosphorus are, however, absorbed and held much more 
tenaciously by the soil particles, and are not subject to severe loss by 
leaching. __ Liberal applications of potash applied to the surface of the 



36 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

soil to which large amounts of water were applied by irrigation were found 
to have penetrated to a depth of only aboul three inches in the course < I 

as mam months. This suggests thai such fertilizers should be distributed 
in that zone of the soil where root activity is most marked, in order that 
the plants may utilize the fertilizer as fully as possible. All of this has a 
bearing upon the fertilizer practices which will be discussed in a sub- 
sequent chapter. 

Plasticity and Ease of Cultivation.— Soils of fine texture are very 
plastic when wet, and clay soils in this condition tend to adhere to cul- 
tural implements, wheels of vehicles and the feet of animals. Such soils 
should not he tilled when they are wet. The movement of the soil par- 
ticles upon one another when in this condition cause- them t«» he cloddy 
and hard when they dry out. It furthermore gives rise to what is known 
as puddling, and prevents the free movement of water and air through 
the soil. This is well illustrated by a clay road in the spring when wag< ns 
pass over it and form ruts while it is in a wet condition. These ruts will 
often become filled with water, which escapes only by evaporation, none 
of it rinding its way through the soil below. The fine-textured soils, 
when not well supplied with organic matter, tend to run together and 
become very compact and difficult to cultivate. This condition can be 
alleviated to a certain extent by avoiding tillage operations when too wet, 
and also by the application of organic matter in the form of manure or 
green manuring crops. Likewise, this condition is improved by the 
application of lime, which causes a flocculation of the soil particles; that 
IS, causes them to gather into little groups with larger spaces between 

these groups. 

The sandy soils and those containing a, liberal amount of sand are 
less affected by rains, are more easy of cultivation and do not call for as 
greal precautions in their tillage. Such soils when wet do not adhere to 
cultural implements and the feet of animals as do the heavy soils, and the 
roads made of such soil are often as good or better immediately after rains 
than they are when in a dry condition. 

Texture Affects Crop Adaptation.- — Heavy clay soils and those con- 
taining large amounts of silt are generally best adapted to the grasses such 
as timothy, blue grass, orchard mass and redtop, and to wheat, rye and 
what is commonly known as the heavy truck crops, such as cabbage, 
tomatoes and asparagus. The soils known as loam, which are of medium 
texture, are better adapted to such crops as corn, oats, barley, buckwheat, 
peas, beans, clover and potatoes. The soils of lighl text me. known as 
line sand and sandy loams, are also well adapted to potatoes, beets and 
all tuber and rod crops, and are also extensively used for the early truck 
crops, such as spinach, lettuce, early potatoes, early peas, etc. Some of 

the ver\ lightest .-and-, such as are found in certain parts of Florida, are 
especially adapted to the growing of pineapples. In general, the poma- 

nd pears, will do well on fairly heavy soils, 



PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 



37 



while the stone fruits, such as peaches, cherries and plums, succeed better 
on soils that are lighter in texture and better drained. In fact, peaches 
will often succeed admirably on shaly ridges and mountains in the Pied- 
mont Plateau. 

Texture Affects Tillage. — Soil texture so influences the cost of tillage 
that it often determines the crop to be grown. Crops that require a great 
deal of tillage and hand work, such as sugar beets, are more economically 




The Ease of Seed-bed Preparation Depends on Condition of Soil. 1 



grown on soils of light texture, because of the greater ease of weeding and 
tillage. Even though these light soils under intensive cultivation may 
require considerable expenditure for fertilizers, the additional cost thus 
entailed is generally more than offset by the saving in labor. 

Structure of the Soil. — The structure of the soil pertains to the 
arrangement of the soil particles within the body of the soil in much the 
same way that the arrangement of the bricks in a building determines 
the style of architecture. In all soils of fine texture it is good soil manage- 
ment to strive to obtain a granular structure. This consists of a grouping 
of the soil particles into small groups or granules. A good illustration oi 

1 Courtesy of Doubleday , Page & Co., Carden City, N. Y. From " Soils," by Fletcher. 



38 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

a granular structure is found in what is known as buckshot land. Such 
a soil when plowed breaks up into small cubical fragments an eighth of 
an inch to a quarter of an inch in size. The granular structure facilitates 
the circulation of the air and soil moisture, permits easier penetration by 
plant roots and lessens the difficulty of cultivation. 

Granular Structure. — The granular structure may be improved by 
tillage. Every time the soil is plowed, cultivated, disked or harrowed, 
it is pulverized and broken up into particles, each formed of a larger or 
smaller number of grains. Granular structure is also improved by good 
drainage. When the body of the soil is saturated or completely filled with 
water the soil particles move with little resistance and tend to arrange 
themselves into a compact mass. This fact is taken advantage of in 
filling excavations, and when the soil is returned to the excavation water 
is turned into it in order that it may settle compactly, so that when once 
filled no depression will occur at the surface. Soils that are thoroughly 
underdrained seldom, if ever, become saturated, so that there is no 
opportunity for the soil particles to arrange themselves in this compact 
mass. Consequently, a soil of this character when once drained gradually 
assumes the granular structure through plowing and cultivation, together 
with the penetration of the roots of the plants and the work of insects and 
worms. This is further facilitated by the thorough drjing of the soil in 
periods of prolonged drought. 

The process of alternate freezing and thawing also has an influence 
on structure. As the water in the soil solidifies it expands and causes 
an elevation of the soil, making it more porous. As it thaws and the water 
again becomes liquid the soil does not fully return to its original position, 
and consequently its tilth is improved. 

Granulation Improved by Organic Matter. — Granular structure is 
also improved by the addition of organic matter to the soil cither as barn- 
yard manure or the residues of crops turned under. The organic matter 
incorporated with the soil occupies spaces that would otherwise be occupied 
by soil particles, and upon its gradual decay it leaves small cavities which 
separate small groups of soil particles. Plant roots are also influential 
in improving the structure of the soil, first, by an actual moving of the 
soil particles due to the enlargement of the roots as they grow; and, 
second, by the gradual decay of these roots, which leaves minute channels 
in the soil through which air and water find free passage. Earthworms 
open channels of considerable depth, and also incorporate in the soil the 
organic matter upon which they live. 

Good Tilth Important. — It is common to speak of the soil as having 
a good or poor tilth. A soil in good tilth means that it is in good physical 
condition, or that it has a granular structure thai makes it the best pos- 
sible home for the plants to which it is adapted. Tin' decree of granu- 
lation desired will be determined to considerable extent by the character 
of crop that is planted. Corn and potatoes, demanding :i rather open 



PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 39 

soil, call for a loose seed-bed in which granular structure is accentuated. 
Wheat, rye, clover and the grasses, on the other hand, demand a rather 
compact, fine-grained seed-bed, and, therefore, do not demand an equal 
degree of granulation. 

Solubility of Soil Minerals. — Plants take their mineral food only 
when it is in solution. This necessitates a degree of solubility of the 
essential plant food minerals that will meet the maximum needs of the 
plants. The solubility of the soil particles depends upon a number of 
factors, and is a rather complex process. In pure water the solubility is 
very slight, but as the water of the soil becomes impregnated with car- 
bonic acid gas, organic compounds and mineral compounds, these all 
exert an influence on the degree of solubility of other mineral constituents. 
Solubility is also markedly influenced by temperature. This fact is well 
recognized by the housewife, who by heating dissolves sugar in water 
until it becomes a syrup; so the solubility of the soil minerals is increased 
by a rise in soil temperature. 

Rate of Solubility Depends on Texture and Kind of Minerals. — The 
rate of solubility is approximately in proportion to the surface of the 
particles on which the solvent acts. Consequently, we find as a rule 
larger amounts of plant food in solution in soils of fine texture than we do 
in soils that are coarse in texture. This doubtless accounts for the practice 
of the more extensive use of fertilizers on sandy soils. It is also true that 
the different minerals have varying degrees of solubility, some being far 
more soluble than others. The limestone particles in a soil mass are 
much more readily soluble than the quartz, and, consequently, lime 
disappears from the soil. Plant roots also have an influence upon solu- 
bility by means of certain excreta given off by the roots. Since, therefore, 
carbon dioxide, organic compounds and plant roots increase the solu- 
bility of the soil particles, it is plain to be seen that the incorporation of 
organic manures with the soil and the production of good crops tend 
always towards a more productive soil, except in so far as the minerals of 
the soil are exhausted through plant removal. 

Soil Bacteria Increase Solubility. — The bacteria of the soil are also 
instrumental in increasing the solubility of the soil minerals. Since, for 
their greatest activity, bacteria require proper sanitary conditions, such 
as aeration, a neutral soil medium and organic matter as their food, it 
will be seen that fertile soils encourage increased numbers of bacteria, 
which in turn make for increased fertility. It is, therefore, essential for 
the tiller of the soil to understand the various factors which enter into 
soil productivity, and to perform his part in encouraging the development 
of those which are beneficial and discouraging those which may be de- 
structive. 

Rapid Solubility Results in Loss of Fertility.— The rate of the solution 
of soil minerals should not far exceed the needs of the crops grown, lest 
there be an unnecessary loss of plant food through leaching and the con- 



40 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

sequenl hastening of the impoverishment of the soil. Excepl in very 
sandy soils, in the practice of bare fallowing of soils, and in the Southern 
states where land is left without cover-crops, there is very little danger, 
however, in this regard. 

Chemical Composition of Soils. — The soil has long beeE as intricate 
problem for the chemist. Many years of research have been spent in an 
endeavor to determine through chemical analysis not only the composition 
of the soil but its power to produce crops and its need for fertilizers. The 
chemist has little difficulty in determining the absolute amounts of the 
essential plant food constituents in the soil, although the process is rather 
long, tedious and costly. Unfortunately, such analyses seldom indicate 
the relative fertility of different soils, and tell us comparatively little as 
to the present fertilizer needs of them. The chemist has also endeavored 
to devise methods of analysis that will determine the amounts of avail- 
able plant food present in the soil. For this he has used different solvents 
of varying concentrations in an endeavor to imitate the plant in its ex- 
traction of tin elements from the soil. So far, however, such methods 
have met with comparatively little success, and we are, therefore, obliged 
to conclude that, as a, rule, a, chemical analysis of the soil is of very little 
help to the farmer. This statement admits of certain exceptions. If the 
analyst finds that the total potash or phosphorus content of a soil is very 
small, it at once indicates that this soil is either immediately in need of 
the deficient element or soon will become so. It is also true that, when 
the physical conditions of the soil are good, the drainage satisfactory and 
unusually large amounts of the essential elements are present, the soils 
are, or may easily he made, productive without the addition of plant 
food. 

The above statements should not he construed to mean that the 
chemist should cease to put forth his best efforts in the solutii n of un- 
solved soil problems; but in its present status, it is not worth while for 
the farmer to ask for a complete chemical analysis of his soil, < r to go to 
the expense of having a, commercial chemist make such an analysis for 
him. Chemical analyses are useful and helpful to the scientist and soil 
expert, and are to he encouraged as a help in the advancement of our 
knowledge of soils. 

Availability Important. — In the majority of cases it is important 
that the farmer know how to increase the availability of plant hod in 
the soil. This question has been partly analyzed in the preceding topic 
on solubility of .-oil minerals. In general, however, the farmer may 
increase availability by deep plowing, thorough tillage, the incorp* ration 
of organic matter ami soil drainage. The best measure of st.il fertility 
or available plant food is the growth that plants make upon anj particular 
soil. Not, only is the degree of growth an indication of fertility, but like- 
wise the color of the plants the manner of growth and the proportion of 

tative parts to seeds or fruits are often indicative of the presence or 



PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 41 

absence of particular elements. The first essential to profitable crops is 
the production of a healthy and vigorous plant. Added to this is a high 
degree of' fruitfulness. A deficiency in phosphorus may not prevent a 
satisfactory development of the plant, but may seriously curtail the pro- 
duction of seed. This is often illustrated in the case of wheat which 
makes a rank growth of straw and a comparatively small yield of wheat. 
The absence of available nitrogen is often indicated by the yellow color 
of the foliage. 

The form in which the elements are combined may influence the 
quality of the product. This is illustrated in tobacco when the applica- 
tion of muriate of potash causes a poor burning quality of the leaf that is 
to be used for cigars. Better results with a cigar tobacco are secured 
when the potash is applied in the form of sulphate or carbonate. Further- 
more, the essential plant food constituents dominate in the development 
of certain parts of the plant or in the performance of certain vegetative 
functions. For example, potash is believed to be largely instrumental 
in the development of starch, and fertilizers for starch-producing plants, 
such as potatoes, generally contain a high percentage of potash. It is 
believed also that the color of fruits is controlled to a certain extent by 
the presence or absence of certain essential elements, such as potash or iron. 

Elements Essential to Plants. — The essential elements of plant food 
may be grouped as follows: First, those obtained from air and water, 
consisting of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon; second, those constituents 
that are frequently deficient in soils and are supplied through the use of 
commercial fertilizers, namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium; the 
third group is not likely to be deficient as elements of plant food. These 
consist of calcium, magnesium, sulphur and ircn. In this group calcium 
and magnesium in the carbonate form may become so deficient that soils 
become sour, in which case the practice of applying lime is advisable. 
The five other elements commonly present and fitting into a fourth group 
are silicon, aluminum, sodium, chlorine and manganese. 

Soil Bacteria. — Bacteria are microscopic plants. They are composed 
chiefly of protoplasm, and differ from higher plants in that they contain 
no chlorophyll. Bacteria are generally single-celled, and they are so 
small that it would require about one and one-half millions brought to- 
gether in a mass in order to be visible to the naked eye. These small 
plants are omnipresent. Soils are teeming with millions upon millions of 
them. They are present in the air and in the water of the lakes and 
rivers, and occur on all vegetation and are present in the foods we eat. 
These minute organisms were unknown until the high power microscope 
was invented a comparatively short time ago. They play a very important 
part in all life processes. More than a thousand species of bacteria have 
already been identified and described, and new species are being discovered 
every day. 

Bacteria Make Plant Food Available. — The bacteria of the soil are 



42 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

of great importance in preparing plant food for our ordinary farm, garden 
and orchard crops. They are instrumental in making nitrogen available 
for higher plants. They also bring about availability of the mineral 
constituents of the soil. It is essential for the farmer to understand that 
the bacteria] flora of the soil is important, and that the multiplication of 
these bacteria, is generally to be encouraged. It is also well to know 
that there are two great classes of bacteria: first, those that thrive best 
in the presence of plenty of air, from which they obtain oxygen; and 
second, those that thrive best with little air and even in the total absence 
of oxygen. These classes are spoken of as aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, 
respectively. The first class, or those thriving best with plenty of air, 
are made up generally of the beneficial forms, and these dominate in the 
more productive soils. They require for their life and rapid multiplica- 
tion food in the form of organic matter, although many forms live directly 
on the mineral elements of the soil. They need moisture and are dormant 
or may die when the soil remains long in a very dry condition. They 
must have air and this is facilitated by the tillage of the soil. 

Nitrogen Increased by Bacteria. — Soil bacteria have no greater 
function in soils than the conversion of organic nitrogen into ammonia, 
nitrites, and finally nitrates, thus making the nitrogen available for higher 
plants. Nitrogen is the most expensive element that farmers have to 
purchase in a commercial form. It costs about twenty cents per pound, or 
three times as much as granulated sugar. Nitrogen is present in the air 
in great quantities, and it is chiefly through various forms of bacteria 
that the higher plants are able to secure the necessary supply. Among 
the bacteria instrumental in this process are the numerous species that 
are found in the nodules on the roots of the various leguminous crops. 
For ages legumes, such as clovers, have been recognized as beneficial to 
the soil, as shown by the increased growth of the non-leguminous crops 
that follow. Not until the discovery of these bacteria in the nodules on 
the roots of legumes (about one-fourth century ago) was it understood 
why legumes were beneficial. 

The species of bacteria that occur in the nodules on the roots of one 
leguminous crop is generally different from that occurring on a different 
leguminous crop, although there are a few exceptions to this rule. The 
same species of bacteria occur on the roots of both alfalfa and sweet 
clover, but a different species is characteristic of red clover, and one species 
cannot be successfully substituted for another. It is, therefore, essential 
to use the right species when attempting to inoculate soil artificially for 
a particular leguminous crop. The different species of bacteria for the 

leguminous crops will be discussed under each of those cro\<, in cha] ters 

w bich follow. 

There are also species of bacteria, living in the soil, not dependent 
directly upon legumes, which have the power of abstracting free nitrogen 
from the aii- and converting it into forms available for general farm crops. 



PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL 43 

Bacteria Abundant Near Surface. — The soil bacteria are most abun- 
dant in the plowed portion of the soil. Their numbers greatly diminish 
as the depth increases, and disappear entirely at a depth of a few feet. 
It is generally believed that direct sunshine is destructive to practically 
all forms of bacteria. Consequently, we find few living bacteria immedi- 
ately at the surface of a dry soil. In the practice of inoculating soils, 
therefore, it is recommended that the bacteria be distributed on a cloudy 
day or in the morning or evening when there is little sunshine, and that 
the inoculation be at once thoroughly mixed with the soil, by disking or 
harrowing. 

Barnyard manures are always teeming with myriads of bacteria, and 
the practice of applying such manure adds many bacteria to the soil. 
Bacteria are most active during the warmer portions of the year, and most 
of them are dormant when the temperature of the soil falls below the 
freezing point. Those instrumental in nitrification are very inactive 
when the soil is cold and wet and become exceedingly active in mid-sum- 
mer when the temperature of the soil is comparatively high, when plant 
growth in general is most active and when nitrogen is most needed by 
growing crops. This is a fortunate coincidence, since it enables the higher 
plants to utilize the nitrates made available at that particular season by 
bacteria. If nitrification through the bacteria were equally rapid during 
periods when farm crops made little growth, a great loss of nitrogen would 
occur through leaching of the soil. The freezing of the soil does not destroy 
bacteria, as a rule, but simply causes them to be temporarily dormant. 

REFERENCE 
"The Soil." Hall. 



CHAPTER 3 

Fertility and How to Maintain 

Fertility Defined. — The fertility of a soil is measured by its capacity 
to produce an abundant growth of the crops to which the soil and climate 
of the region are adapted. Fertility is not dependent upon a single factor, 
but requires the presence and co-ordination of a number of factors acting 
in unison. The fertility of the soil is, therefore, dependent, first, upon 
the presence of a sufficient supply of the necessary plant-food elements 
in an available form; second, upon an adequate water supply to convey 
these elements in solution to the roots of the plants; third, upon suf- 
ficient warmth to promote plant growth; fourth, upon the presence of 
sufficient air to meet the needs of the roots for oxygen. A fertile soil 
will, therefore, generally consist of the ordinary soil minerals reduced to 
a fine state of subdivision, incorporated with more or less organic matter, 
and containing a sufficient supply of air, water and soil bacteria. 

Vegetation an Index to Fertility. — The best index to soil fertility is 
the growth and condition of plants produced by the soil. On a virgin 
soil, either in timbered regions or on the prairies, the species of plants 
and their conditions of growth have long been recognized as indications 
of the character and value of the soil. In general, such trees as a] pie, 
ash, basswood, black walnut, burr oak, crab-apple, hard maple, hickory 
and wild plum, are indicative of good soil. On the other hand, where 
beech, chestnut, hemlock, pine or spruce dominates the forest growth, the 
soils are likely to be comparatively poor. White oak and beech are fre- 
quently found growing together in considerable abundance. l( the white 
oak predominates the soil may be considered fairly good, but if leech 
predominates it may be looked upon with suspicion, and will probably 
prove to lie a poor soil. 

Herbaceous plants in the same manner are a good indication of the 
fertility of the soil. For example, in regions where alfalfa, Canada thistle, 
bindweed, clover, corn, cockle-burr, Kentucky blue grass, quack grass, 
ragweed and wheat grow well, the soils are generally found to be fertile. 
On the other hand, (he predominance of buckwheat, Canada blue .mass, 
the daisy, five-finger, oats, paint-brush, potatoes, redtop, rye, sorrel and 
wild carrot, indicate soils relatively poor. 

In general, legumes indicate a good soil, although in case of the wild 
legumes there are some exceptions to this. Soils on which the grasses 
predominate are generally better than those given over largely to the 
growth of sedges. The sedges in general indicate wet soils. Golden-rod 
is a common weed having a wide habitat. It grows on both poor and 

(44) 



FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 45 

good soils. The character of growth of this plant will suggest whether 
or not the soil is good or poor. On good soil it will have a rank and 
vigorous growth. The same may be true with other plants, but where 
nature is allowed to run her course and the law of "the survival of the 
fittest" has free sway, those plants naturally best adapted to the region 
are the ones which will ultimately predominate. 

It should not be understood that any one species of plant should be 
relied upon to indicate whether or not a soil is good or poor, but when 
one takes into consideration all the vegetation present, one can then judge 
quite accurately as to the relative strength or fertility of the soil. 

Drainage Reflected in Character of Vegetation. — The condition of 
the soil with reference to drainage is, of course, a modifying factor. Swamp 
soils, for example, are adapted only to those plants that can grow in the 
presence of an excess of moisture. So long as soils are in a swampy con- 
dition they are unsuited to agricultural crops, and in that condition may 
be considered unproductive. A good system of artificial drainage may 
change the whole aspect and cause them to be transformed into highly 
productive farm soils. Indeed, the establishment of a drainage system 
under such conditions would ultimately cause the disappearance of the 
native vegetation and encourage the encroachment of an entirely dif- 
ferent set of plants. Then, again, climate is a modifying factor, and 
certain plants are found in regions of continuous warm climate that are 
not found where cold winters prevail. 

Lime Content and Acidity Related to Plants. — The predominance of 
chestnut trees as above indicated suggests a poor soil and one low in lime 
content. Chestnut trees are not found on limestone soils, and the lime- 
stone soils in general are considered among the most fertile. Such plants 
as the huckleberry, blueberry, cranberry and wintergreen are seldom found 
on soils well supplied with lime. Redtop, while often indicative of a poor 
soil, will grow luxuriantly on a fertile soil. It is also very tolerant of soil 
acidity and an excess of moisture. It has a wide adaptation and is often 
grown as a hay crop on poor soils. 

The presence of an abundance of sorrel, plantain and moss in culti- 
vated fields is indicative of the condition of the soil, although it may have 
no relation to the soluble plant food present. Such plants generally indi- 
cate an acid soil, and call for the application of lime to encourage the 
growth of clover. Sorrel, like clover, is generally benefited by lime, but 
it is more tolerant of soil acidity than clover, and on an acid soil the clover 
disappears and the sorrel takes its place. Red clover is less tolerant of 
soil acidity than alsike clover. Many farmers make it a practice to mix 
these two species of clover. On neutral soils the red clover will always 
dominate and the alsike will scarcely be noticeable. But if the acidity 
of the soil approaches the limit for red clover, then the alsike will pre- 
dominate, and this predomination is very noticeable when the crop comes 
into blossom. 



46 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Vegetation and Alkali.— In the irrigation districts of the semi-arid 
regions of the United Stairs the character of vegetation often enables 
one to determine at a glance whether or not the soils are too alkaline for 
t he product ion of staple crops. This fact is taken advantage of and serves 
as a greal aid to the soil expert in the mapping of alkali soils. The pre- 
dominance of sage bushes and rabbit's foot indicates freedom from alkali, 
while such plants as greasewood, mutton sass and salt grasses show at 
once that the soils are highly impregnated with alkali salts. 

Color of Soils Related to Fertility. — Another index to soil fertility is 
the color of the soil. It cannot always be explained just why a certain 
color is indicative of fertility or otherwise, but there seems to be a com- 
paratively consistent relationship between color and degree of fertility. 
Nearly all black soils are fertile, while those that are of an ashy hue or 
have a yellowish cast are generally poor. The chocolate-colored soils, the 
red soils and those of a brown color are, as a rule, fairly fertile. The 
farmer, as well as the soil expert, soon learns that color is a good index 
relative to soil fertility. 

It is wise, however, to look further than merely on the surface of 
the soil or the character of the vegetation. Subsoil is also very important 
in connection with fertility. There are regions where the surface soil is 
black and where the subsoil immediately beneath is of a light-colored, tena- 
cious clay, so nearly hardpan that the soils are not productive for any con- 
siderable range of general farm crops, although they may be well adapted 
to grass. 

Maintenance of Fertility. — Soils are permanent. They constitute the 
most important asset of the nation. Their maintenance through rational 
systems of farming is essential. Nature has made for increased soil fer- 
tility, but unfortunately the occupation of the soil by man has often 
resulted in soil robbery and a decline in productivhy. This serious fault 
should be remedied. 

Fertility Lost by Plant Removal. — Loss of soil fertility by plant 
removal is legitimate. Such loss must ultimately be replaced, either by 
the nt inn of the residues of crops thus removed in the form of unused 
portions or by-products and the excreta of the animals that consume the 
crops, or by the purchase of the different elements in commercial fer- 
tilizers. In rational systems of farming the removal of plaid food through 
the removal of crops is not to be considered undesirable, and such removal 
should result in sufficient profits to enable the soil loss to be replaced at a 
cost less than the profits received through the crops grown. In the pre- 
ceding chapter we found that of the mineral elements potassium and phos- 
phorus are the only ones likely to become exhausted to such a degree as 

to necessitate replacement. As a matter of fact, potash occurs in large 
quantities in most soils, and the problem of the future seems to be largely 

the adoption of methods thai will bring about its availability. Many 

soils, however, contain phosphorus in such small amounts that in a short 



FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 47 

time the supply will be so nearly exhausted as to necessitate the return of 
this element to the soil in some commercial form. In seme soils it is 
already necessary for most profitable crop production. 

Loss by Erosion. — The loss of soil fertility by erosion is more serious 
than the loss by plant removal. In this way there is not only a loss of 
plant food but a loss of a portion of the soil body itself. The millions of 
tons of finest soil particles and organic matter carried annually to the 
ocean by the rivers of the United States are a monument to careless soil 
management. This waste may be witnessed everywhere. The removal 
of the most fertile part of the soil is not only a loss to the soil, but is often 
a menace to navigable streams which are filled up with this material. An 
enormous expenditure on the part of our national government is necessary 
in dredging them out and making them again navigable. This erosion 
also becomes a menace to our great city water supplies, necessitating ex- 
pensive filter plants to remove the suspended matter and purify the water. 
It also frequently does damage to other land subject to overflow, and on 
which the deposits may be left. 

The great problem, therefore, seems to be the control of the rain that 
falls upon the land. A portion of this may pass over the surface, carrying 
with it small amounts of the surface, which in the course of time has been 
largely exhausted of plant-food elements. This loss should be accom- 
panied by a renewal of the soil from below. The addition of new soil 
below should keep pace with the removal from the surface if permanent 
soil fertility is to be maintained. The remainder of the rainfall should 
find its way into the soil. A portion of this may pass off into the drainage 
waters, removing certain soluble material that without such drainage 
might accumulate in the course of centuries to the detriment of plant 
growth. Another portion should return to the surface, bringing with it 
the soluble constituents of the soil and leaving them near the surface for 
the use of growing plants. 

Preventing Soil Erosion. — Water escaping from the soil by means of 
underdrainage never carries with it any of the soil material other than 
the slight portions that are soluble. It is, therefore, essential to establish 
systems of farming that will enable a large proportion of the rainfall to 
penetrate the soil; and to remove the excess of water by underdrainage 
when nature fails to provide such a system. Erosion may be largely pre- 
vented on most farms by deep plowing and by keeping the soil covered 
as much as possible with growing crops or their remains. Deep plowing 
encourages an increased penetration of the rainfall and, therefore, reduces 
the amount passing over the surface of the soil. The presence of growing 
plants retards the movement of surface water and holds back the soil 
particles. An abundance of roots in the soil helps to hold it together and 
prevent erosion. The application of barnyard and green manures 
also retards erosion. In some places terracing the soil to prevent 
erosion becomes necessary, but it is a costly and cumbersome method 



48 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

and not to be recommended where other and cheaper methods can be 

Used. 

Lands thai arc steep and subject to erosion should be kept covered 
with vegetation as fully as possible. Such lands should not be plowed 
in the fall and allowed to lie bare through the winter. 

Farming Systems that Maintain Fertility. — Systems of farming which 
provide for a, return of the largest possible proportion of the plant-food 
constituents removed in crops are those thai most easily maintain the 
fertility of the soil. It is, therefore, evident thai livestock farming in 
genera] is least exhaustive of soil fertility, provided the excreta of the 
animals are carefully saved and returned to the soil. In the rearing' of 
animals for meat, about ninety per cent of the plant food consumed by 
the animals is voided in the liquid and solid excreta. If this is carefully 
saved and returned to the soil, depletion of soil fertility will be exceed- 
ingly slow. 

In dairy farming, where the milk is sold, a somewhat larger propor- 
tion of the plant food elements is sold from the farm. Even here the 
total amount is relatively small, and may be offset by the plant food in 
concentrates purchased for the dairy. If the milk is fed to pigs and 
calves and only the butter is sold, the exhaustion in the long run will be 
no greater than in meat production. It is, therefore, evident that the 
type of farming is closely related to the maintenance of soil fertility, and 
those types which permit a maximum sale of cash crops cause the largest 
direct removal of plant food from the farm. All types of livestock farm- 
ing, therefore, come closest to maintaining permanent fertility. 

In new countries it is not an uncommon practice for farmers to dump 
the manure from stables into a nearby stream in order to get rid of it. 
It is also a common practice to burn stacks of straw and the stubble of 
the field in order that the soil may be freed of rubbish and easily plowed 
and cultivated. Such practices are to be condemned, for in the long run 
they encourage soil depletion. Where Kind is cheap and fertile mid labor 
expensive, the immediate returns from applying manure may not justify 
the cost of its application, but in a long term of years it will prove profit- 
able. A farmer should be far-sighted enough to calculate whal the resull 
will be in the course of a lifetime. There should be more profit in the 
removal of fifty crops in as many years where fertility has been main- 
tained or increased, and where the crop yields have increased, than there 
is in the removal of fifty crops with a constantly decreasing yield. In the 
first case the land is left in good condition for the succeeding generation; 
in the second case, in bad condition. 

Deep Plowing Advisable.- Fertility of the soil is generally improved 
by increasing the depth of plowing. It is a common observation that in 
regions of good farming where farmers are prosperous, the soil is generally 

plowed to a depth of seven to ten inches. In many portions of the South 
we find the one-mule plow that barely skims the surface of the soil, and 



FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 49 

accompanying this we have the unsuccessful farmer. Plowing is an expen- 
sive operation. It is estimated that the power required annually to plow 
the farm land of the United States exceeds that used in the operation of 
all the mills and factories in the country. 

There is a limit to the profitable depth of plowing, and numerous 
experiments indicate that it is seldom profitable to plow deeper than 
eight to ten inches. There doubtless are some exceptions to this found in 
case of the production of intensive crops or the occasional deep plowing 
for the preparation of a deep-rooted crop like trees or alfalfa. Deep plow- 
ing increases fertility by increasing the area of pulverized soil in which 
the roots of the plants find pasturage. Such plowing increases the aera- 
tion of the soil, encourages the multiplication of bacteria to a greater depth 
in the soil, and results in increased availability of plant food. Deep plow- 
ing also incorporates the organic matter applied as manure or as the stubble 
of the preceding crop in a deeper stratum of soil, thus increasing its water- 
holding capacity. Deep plowing also increases the penetration of rainfall 
and provides for greater storage of it. This provides a larger water supply 
for the growing crops in periods of drought. 

Tillage is Manure. — Cultivation of the soil, and especially the inter- 
tillage of crops, such as corn, potatoes and truck crops, aids in maintaining 
fertility: first, by conserving soil moisture; second, by more thorough 
aeration of the soil; third, by a fuller incorporation and distribution of 
the organic matter with the mineral matter; and fourth, by the destruc- 
tion of weeds which consume plant food and water to the detriment of 
the crop grown. 

Rotations are Helpful. — Crop rotations also help to maintain fertility. 
By means of rotating crops the soil may be occupied for longer periods of 
time than when one crop is planted year after year on the same soil. The 
roots of different crops, having very different habits, occupy somewhat 
different zones in the soil. A shallow-rooted crop may be advantageously 
followed by a deep-rooted one. One takes the major portion of its plant 
food from near the surface and the other from a somewhat lower stratum. 
All crops do not use mineral constituents in the same proportion. One 
which demands large amounts of nitrogen may appropriately follow one 
which has the power of gathering nitrogen from the air. For example, 
corn appropriately follows clover, the corn benefiting by the nitrogen left 
in the soil by the roots and stubble of the clover crop. 

Rotations Reduce Diseases. — Rotations also make for fertility by 
checking the epidemics of plant diseases and the depredations of insects. 
As a rule, a plant disease is common only to one crop and where that 
one crop is grown year after year on the same soil the disease increases 
until finally the crop must be abandoned. Many of the insect pests of crops 
either live permanently in the soil or have but little power of migration. 
These likewise prey upon certain crops and do not bother others, and the 
rotation of crops prevents serious injury by them. While these do not 



50 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



add plant food to the soil, their absence increases the growth of crops, 
which means the same thing. 

Cover-Crops Prevent Loss of Fertility. — Cover- or catch-crops may 
be grown greatly to the benefit of the soil. Cover-crops consist of any 
suitable plants occupying the soil when the money crop is not in pos- 
session. They make growth during the cool season of the year, take up 
plant food as it is made available, and hold it in plant form, where it may 
be returned to the soil when such a crop is plowed under. In this way 

it prevents the loss of 
soil fertility by direct 
soil leaching and con- 
verts mineral plant 
food into an organic 
form which upon decay 
is more readily avail- 
able than it previously 
was. Such a crop also 
adds organic matter to 
the soil, increasing its 
power for holding water 
and being generally 
beneficial. Good ex- 
amples of cover-crops 
are crimson clover or a 
mixture of rye and 
winter vetch seeded in 
corn late in the sum- 
mer and occupying the 
soil during the winter. Such crops do not at all interfere with the 
growth and maturity of the corn. They make most of their growth in the 
late fall and early spring and may be plowed under in ample time for plant- 
ing a crop the following year. Such crops are adapted especially to the 
South, where the winters are mild and freezing of the soil is slight, while 
erosion and leaching are marked. This practice is quite common with 
truck farmers, as cover-crops may be seeded after the removal of a truck 
crop. 

Legumes Increase Soil Nitrogen. — Of all the crops instrumental in 
increasing soil fertility, none equal the legumes, for these alone have the 
power, through the instrumentality of bacteria, residing in the nodules 
on their roots, to extract free nitrogen from the air. While such cro] a 
are richer in protein than the non-legumes, yet at the same time they leave 
in the roots and stubble a large amount of nitrogen which is available 
for non-legumes. A crop rotation which dn^s not have a1 least one 
leguminous crop every four or five years is decidedly faulty. 

'Courtesy of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 




Soil Fertility Barrel. 1 
Illustrating the limiting factor in crop production. 



FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 51 

Drainage Increases Fertility. — Fertility is increased by drainage, 
especially underdrainage, which lowers the water table, increases aeration, 
and causes plant roots to go deeper in the soil. The amount of plant 
food that plants can secure is approximately proportionate to the volume 
of the soil to which they have access. Drainage virtually deepens the 
soil. 

Manure is the Best Fertilizer. — Manures increase fertility by the 
direct addition of plant food and by increasing the organic matter of the 
soil. Manures increase the water-holding capacity of the soil, improve 
its physical condition, introduce various forms of bacteria and encourage 
the multiplication of desirable bacteria. 

Commercial Fertilizers Add Plant Food Only. — Commercial fertilizers 
increase fertility by the direct addition of the plant food elements they 
contain, but, as a rule, have very little if any other effect. Commercial 
fertilizers are expensive and call for an intimate knowledge of the require- 
ments of the soil and the form and availability of the constituents in the 
fertilizer. The factors above mentioned in relation to soil fertility will 
be more fully discussed under the several chapters pertaining to them, 
which follow. 

The Limiting Factor. — There is always a limiting factor in crop pro- 
duction, and it is the business of the farmer to ascertain his limiting 
factor or factors. In many cases the limiting factor in the growth of a 
crop will be the supply of water. This may be a deficient supply or it 
may be an excess. If water is the limiting factor it may be due to a low 
rainfall during the crop season and the low storage capacity of the soil. 
The farmer has no control over the rainfall, but he should endeavor to 
increase the water storage capacity of his soil by such means as are 
economical. Deeper plowing, the addition of organic matter, thorough 
tillage to conserve soil moisture or the application of water in the form 
of irrigation are all of them means to such an end. If the limiting factor 
is due to an excess of water, thus preventing plant growth, the problem 
becomes one of land drainage and the removal of the water. 

The limiting factor may be a deficiency in phosphorus. This being 
the case, it is important that the farmer know the truth in order that he 
may supply the deficiency by the application of a phosphatic fertilizer. 
When the limiting factor or deficiency has been supplied, something else 
may then become a limiting factor. For example, the limestone soils of 
Pennsylvania are generally deficient in phosphorus. Such soils, when 
cropped with a four-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat and mixed clover 
and timothy, will show a steady decline in crop yields if no manures or 
fertilizers are applied. Experiments with fertilizers on limestone soil and 
for the crops mentioned show that when nitrogen alone is applied it has 
no effect. Potash applied alone is likewise ineffective. When phosphorus 
is applied there is a marked increase in the yield of crops. Phosphorus, 
however, will not fully maintain the fertility of the soil. Its yield will 



52 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



decline, but not so rapidly as when nothing is applied. When the need 
for phosphorus is met, then potash becomes the limiting factor, and large 
applications of potash may be used in connection with phosphorus with 
profitable returns. In this way there will always be a limiting factor in 
crop production. The farmer should ascertain the limiting factors in 
his crop production, and then supply them most economically. He may 
find that there are several limiting factors, and that these will vary from 




Soil Fertility Plats, Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station. 

( >n left, 200 pounds per aero muriate of potash every other year. 
In center, dried blood containing 24 pounds nitrogen and dissolved bone-black con- 
taining 48 pounds phosphoric acid. 

On right, dried blood containing 24 pounds nitrogen, muriate of potash 200 pounds. 



time to time; so the problem of soil fertility is a never-ending problem 
with which the farmer will always have to contend. 

Fertility an Economic Problem. — Soil fertility is a problem of far- 
reaching economic importance. The principal items of expense in general 
crop production are labor of men and horses, equipment, seeds and land 
rental. These cost no more for a productive acre than for one of low 
productivity. In fact, the productive soils are generally plowed and 
cultivated at less cost of time and energy than those of low productivity. 
Every hundredweight of product over that required to meet the cost of 
production is profit. 

REFERENCES 

ervation <if Natural Resources." Van TTise. 
"Soil Fertility and Permanenl Agriculture." Hopkins. 
"Soil Management." King. 
I n-t Principles of Soil Fertility." Vivian. 



FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 53 

"Soils and Soil Fertility." Whitson and Walston. 

"The Fertility of the Land." Roberts. 

Kentucky Agricultural Expt. Station Bulletin 191 . "Teachings of Kentucky Agricultural 

Expt. Station Relative to Soil Fertility." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

342. "Conservation of Soil Resources." 

406. "Soil Conservation." 

421. "The Control of Blowing Soils." 

446. "The Choice of Crops for Alkali Land." 



CHAPTER 4 

Commercial Fertilizers 

A careful study of the condition of farming in the United States shows 
that the supply of barnyard and stable manure is not adequate to main- 
tain the fertility of the soil. The need for commercial fertilizers is, there- 
fore, apparent and real, although the amount required in conjunction 
with natural manures may be comparatively small. 

It is desirable to use commercial fertilizers on many farms and the 
practice is becoming more general each decade. This is but natural, 
since there is a constant flow of soil fertility towards the cities. The 
rapid increase in the city population and the consequent increase in food 
consumption at those points cause a constantly increasing drain upon the 
soil fertility of the farms. 

Object and Use of Commercial Fertilizers. — The object of manuring 
the soil, whether with stable manure, green manure or commercial ftrtil- 
izers, is to increase its crop-yielding capacity. In order to justify the 
practice the resulting increase in products must be more than sufficient 
to offset the cost of manures or fertilizers applied. This increase need 
not necessarily be secured the first year after the application, but should 
be secured in the current and succeeding crops, and should give a net 
profit on the capital and labor so expended. 

The first noteworthy use of commercial fertilizers in the United States 
was in 1848. In that year there was imported 1000 tons of guano. This 
was followed the succeeding year by twenty times that quantity. From 
that date the importation steadily increased until 1880, when it reached 
its maximum and began to decline because of a failing supply of guano. 
Other materials, such as sodium nitrate from Chile and the potash salts 
from Germany, have taken the place of the guano. These, together with 
the development of our phosphate mines, the use of cottonseed meal and 
the utilization of slaughter-house by-products, have met the continually 
increasing demand for commercial fertilizers by our farmers. According 
to census reports, the expenditures for fertilizers in the United States 
during the past four census-taking years have been as follows: 

Year. Value. 

ls7«.) $28,500,000.00 

L889 38,500,000.00 

1S99 54,750,000.00 

1909 112,000,000 on 

There seems to be little doubt but thai this rate of increase in the 
use of fertilizers will continue for some time to conic. The subject is one 

(54) 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 55 

of much economic importance to farmers, and one which has received 
much time and attention on the part of investigators in the agricultural 
experiment stations of all the older agricultural states. Agricultural 
literature now contains a vast amount of data setting forth the results of 
experiments with fertilizers on different types of soil and for different 
crops, but there is still much to be learned relative to the subject. We 
will always have an acute fertilizer problem. This is due to the constantly 
changing conditions of the soil, resulting primarily from changed agri- 
cultural practices and especially from the treatment of the soil, which 
will gradually change its relationship to crops. 

What are Commercial Fertilizers? — In discussing the subject of 
fertilizers the terms manures, complete and incomplete manures, fertil- 
izers, chemical fertilizers, commercial fertilizers, natural fertilizers, arti- 
ficial fertilizers, indirect fertilizers, superphosphates, etc., are used, and 
there is often misunderstanding of the meaning of some of these terms. 
Fertilizers are first divided into natural and artificial. The former in- 
clude all the solid and liquid excrement of animals and green manuring crops 
when plowed under for the benefit of the soil. Artificial fertilizers include 
all commercial forms of fertilizers. These are sometimes called prepared 
fertilizers and chemical fertilizers, but are becoming more generally known 
as commercial fertilizers. A complete fertilizer contains the three essential 
plant-food constituents, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. An in- 
complete fertilizer contains only one or two of these. All animal manures 
are complete fertilizers. Green manures are likewise complete. 

A fertilizer is said to be indirect when it contains none of the essential 
plant-food elements, but in some way acts on the soil so as to increase the 
availability of plant food in the soil or increase crop growth. Lime, 
gypsum, salt and numerous other substances have been found to have 
this action and would be classed as indirect fertilizers. 

The terms high-grade and low-grade are also applied to fertilizers. 
These terms, however, are not well defined. High-grade fertilizers gen- 
erally contain large amounts of plant food per ton, while low-grade fer- 
tilizers contain relatively small amounts. Another distinction that is 
sometimes made is that fertilizers manufactured out of high-grade con- 
stituents, such as nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate or sulphate 
of potash, are considered high-grade fertilizers regardless of the percentage 
of the elements. A high-grade fertilizer always costs more per ton than 
a low-grade one, but it is generally true that the elements in such a fertil- 
izer come cheaper to the farmer than they do in a low-grade material. 
Whether it is more economical to purchase high-grade or low-grade material 
is an important question, but the answer is not difficult. All fertilizers 
should be bought on the basis of their content of available plant food, and 
it is merely a problem in arithmetic to calculate the relative cost of the 
elements in different grades of fertilizer. 

Where are Fertilizers Secured? — Fertilizer materials are to a large 



56 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



extent gathered from different parts of the world, and arc cither treated 
to increase availability or combined into mixed fertilizers before being 
offered to the fanner. Fortunately the fertilizing element most needed 
in the soils of the United States and Canada, namely, phosphorus, is 
secured chiefly from extensive deposits of phosphate rock in Florida, 
South Carolina and Tennessee and a few other states. This supply is 
supplemented to some extent by bone phosphate, which comes chiefly 
from the slaughter-houses of the country; also by basic; slag, a by- 
product of steel manufacture. 

The potash salts are secured almost exclusively from the extensive 
potash mines in Germany. Potash salts come to us in different forms. 
Most of them have been manipulated and more or less purified. The 
one most extensively used is known as muriate of potash and is a chloride 
of potassium (KC1). Sulphate of potash and carbonate of potash are 
used to a somewhat less extent. In addition to these we have some of the 
crude potash salts, such as kainite and manure salt. A comparatively 
new source of potash suitable for commercial fertilizers has been found in 
the extensive kelp groves in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the United 
States' and Canada. As yet these have not been extensively used as a 
commercial source of potash. 

Nitrogen is available chiefly in the form of nitrate of soda, which 
comes from Chile. We also have sulphate of ammonia, an extensive by- 
product from coke ovens and from the manufacture of artificial gas. As 
yet the nitrogen escaping from coke ovens is not all transformed into 
sulphate of ammonia. There are also organic forms of nitrogen, chief of 
which are cottonseed meal, dried blood, tankage, fish sera]), guano, castor 
pomace, together with small amounts of horn, hair, feathers and wool 
waste. 

Carriers of Nitrogen. — Nitrate of soda (NaN0 3 ) contains 15 per 
cent of nitrogen. It is readily soluble in water, and nitrogen in this f< 1111 
is immediately available for plants. It should be applied in small quan- 
tities and not long prior to the time plants most need their nitrogen supply. 
Sulphate of ammonia (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 contains 20 per cent of nitrogen. 
Tike nitrate of soda, it is quick acting, but for most crops the ammonia 
must first be converted into the nitrate form before it can be utilized. 
Some crops, however, can utilize ammonia as such. Sulphate of ammonia 
is nnt leached from the soil quite as rapidly as nitrate of soda, but never- 
theless it should not be applied in larger amounts than are necessary, 
nor far in advance of the needs of the crop. 

Cottonseed meal is another source of nitrogen which is extensively 
resorted to in the cotton belt. It contains from 3 to 8 per cent of nitr< gen; 
with an average of about 6.8 per cent. It is not wholly a nitrogenous 
fertilizer, since it also contains an average of 2.9 per cent phosphoric 
acid .-ind l.S per cent potash. The nitrogen in cottonseed meal being in 
an organic form, is rather slowly available. Availability is gradually 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 57 

brought about through decomposition. The nitrogen thus resulting is, 
therefore, distributed through a considerable period of time. It is often 
used as a part of the nitrogen supply for crops with a long growing season. 

Dried blood is also an organic source of nitrogen, containing on an 
average 10 per cent of this element. It is easily decomposed and some- 
what more available than nitrogen in cottonseed meal. 

Tankage contains nitrogen in variable quantities, ranging from 5 to 
12 per cent. It may also contain from 7 to 20 per cent of phosphoric 
acid. The nitrogen in tankage is slowly available. 

Forms of nitrogen that have more recently found their way into the 
market are cyanamide and lime nitrate. These are manufactured prod- 
ucts in which the nitrogen is secured directly from the air through certain- 
chemical and electrical processes. The nitrogen in these forms is not 
so available as that in nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, although 
it is considered more readily available than most of the organic forms. 

Phosphorus. — This constituent is available in the form of acid 
phosphate, which contains 14 to 16 per cent of phosphoric acid or 6 to 7 
per cent of phosphorus. Most of the phosphorus is in an available form. 
Acid phosphate is made by treating a given bulk of finely pulverized 
phosphate rock with an equal weight of crude commercial sulphuric acid. 
The reaction that takes place makes the phosphorus available. It is 
this material that is chiefly used in the manufacture of complete com- 
mercial fertilizers. Phosphoric acid costs from four to five cents per 
pound in acid phosphate, depending on location and size of purchases. 
(As this goes to press, prices have advanced 25 to 30 per cent. This 
advance is probably temporary.) 

There is now an increased tendency to make direct use of the raw 
rock phosphate in a finely pulverized form. Such rock contains the 
equivalent of 28 to 35 per cent of phosphoric acid, but it is in an insoluble 
form and can be economically used only on soils that are well supplied 
with organic matter or in conjunction with barnyard or stable manure 
and green manure crops. The general use of raw rock phosphate has not 
been advisable on the soils of the eastern and southern part of the United 
States. On the other hand, the raw rock phosphate has given good results 
on the prairie soils of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and some other states. 
The cost of phosphoric acid in this form is equivalent to two cents per 
pound or a little less. 

Basic slag, sometimes known as Thomas Phosphate, is a by-product 
of steel mills which is finely ground and used as a source of phosphorus. 
It is similar to raw rock phosphate, slightly more available and contains 
the equivalent of 15 to 18 per cent of phosphoric acid. 

There are two types of bone meal on the market, raw bone and 
steamed bone. The raw bone is fresh bone which has been finely ground. 
Raw bone contains about 20 per cent of phosphoric acid and 4 per cent 
of nitrogen. Bone which has the fat and gelatin removed by extracting 



58 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

with steam contains only about 1 per cent of nitrogen and 22 to 23 per 
cent of phosphoric acid. The steamed bone is more finely ground than 
the raw bone, and since the fat and gelatin are removed it decomposes 
more rapidly and is, therefore, more readily available as plant food. 
While the phosphorus in both forms of bone is largely insoluble, it is never- 
theless more readily available than that in rock phosphate. 

Potassium.— Muriate of potash (KC1), the chief source of potash, 
contains the equivalent of about 50 per cent of potash (K2O). It is the 
most common purified potash salt, consisting chiefly of potassium chloride. 
It is a very satisfactory source of potash for all crops excepting tobacco 
and potatoes. This form, on account of its contents of chlorine, causes 
a poor burn in tobacco used for smoking purposes. The chlorine is sup- 
posed to be slightly detrimental to starch formation, and for this reason 
the sulphate and carbonate of potash are considered superior for potatoes. 

Potassium sulphate also contains the equivalent of 50 per cent of 
potash (K 2 0). Kainite a low-grade material contains about 12 per 
cent of potash. 

Wood ashes are aiso a source of potash. They contain about 6 per 
cent of this constituent, together with about 2 per cent of phosphoric 
acid and a large amount of lime. The availability of the potash in ashes 
is rated as medium. 

Forms of Fertilizer Materials.— It is the common experience of 
farmers and investigators that the different carriers of nitrogen, phos- 
phorus and potassium behave differently on different soils, in different 
seasons and with different crops. Most fruit and tobacco growers 
recognize the difference in the different forms of potash although it is 
not clearly understood why these differences occur. 

Under present fertilizer regulations dealers are required to state 
only the percentage of the plant-food constituents in the fertilizers they 
offer for sale. It would be a wise provision if in addition to this they 
were required to state the source of the constituents as well as the per- 
centage. This is especially important as relates to nitrogen, which varies 
widely in its availability, depending on its source. Many materials 
containing essential elements are nearly worthless as sources of plant 
food because the form is not right. Plants are unable to make use of 
tlusc materials because liny are unavailable. Materials that do not 
show wide variation in composition and in which the constituents arc 
practically uniform in their action, may be regarded as standard in the 
sense thai tiny can be depended upon to furnish practically the same 
amount and form of a constituent wherever secured. Among such standard 
materials may be considered nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, acid 
phosphate, muriate <>!' potash, sulphate of potash and carbonate of potash. 

Relative Value of Fertilizer Ingredients.- A practical point, and one 
of importance to the farmer, is a reliable estimate of the relative value 
and usefulness of the various products that enter into commercial fertil- 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 59 

izers. The relative rate of availability of a constituent in one carrier as 
compared with its availability in another is the point at issue. This 
determines the advantage or disadvantage of purchasing one or the other 
at ruling market prices. As yet definite relative values for all fertilizing 
materials have not been worked out. Furthermore, it is recognized that 
they never can be worked out for conditions in general, because of the 
wide latitude in the conditions which affect availability. This problem 
is attacked by what is known as vegetative tests; that is, tests which 
show the actual amounts of the constituents taken up from various sub- 
stances by plants when grown under identical conditions. With nitrog- 
enous fertilizers, for example, the results so far obtained indicate that 
when nitrogen in nitrate of soda is rated at 100 per cent, that in blood 
and cottonseed meal are equal to about 70 per cent, that in dried and 
ground fish and hoof meal at 65 per cent, that in bone' and tankage at 60 
per cent, and for leather and wool waste may range from as low as 2 per 
cent to as high as 30 per cent. 

The Composition of Fertilizers. — In the purchase of mixed fertilizers 
consumers should demand that they be accompanied by a guarantee. 
This is essential because the purchaser is unable to determine the kind 
and proportion of the different materials entering into the mixture, either 
by its appearance, weight or smell. 

At present most of the states have on their statutes, laws regulating 
the manufacture and sale of commercial fertilizers. These require that 
the composition be plainly stated on the original packages of fertilizer. 
The law also provides for the analysis of samples collected at any point 
and the publication of these analyses either by the state departments or 
by the state experiment stations. Such publications set forth the name 
of the brand of fertilizer and the name of the dealer or manufacturer, 
together with a statement of the analysis as given by the manufacturer 
as compared with that found by the official analysis. Infringements of 
the law relative to its provisions call for punishment generally by fines. 
Under such a system of regulation there is now little danger of the farmer 
being cheated in the purchase of fertilizers so far as their composition is 
concerned. 

What Analyses of Fertilizers Show. — The difference between a good 
and inferior fertilizer is shown by a chemical analysis, providing it is 
carried far enough to show both the amount and form of the constituents 
present. An analysis of a fertilizer which shows that the nitrogen is 
present chiefly as nitrates, the phosphorus as acid phosphate and the 
potash as muriate of potash at once stamps such a fertilizer as being 
made up of high-grade materials. On the other hand, if the nitrogen is 
found largely in an organic form and the phosphorus in an insoluble form, 
it is evident that the materials used are low-grade forms, and result in 
a slow-acting and sometimes unsatisfactory fertilizer. 

Commercial vs. Agricultural Value of Manures. — Agricultural value 



(50 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

and commercial value as applied to fertilizers arc not synonymous and 
should not be confused. The agricultural value is measured by the value 
of the increase in crops secured through the use of the fertilizer. The 
commercial value is determined by the trade conditions. It is based 
upon the composition of the fertilizer and the price per pound of the 
different forms of the several constituents that enter into it. Commercial 
value is merely a matter of arithmetic. Agricultural value varies greatly 
and depends upon a number of factors, among which the knowledge of 
the farmer plays no small part. 

Mechanical Condition. — The mechanical condition of a commercial 
fertilizer deserves consideration by the farmer. The degree of pulveriza- 
tion controls the rate of solubility to no small extent. The finer the 
pulverization the more thorough can be the distribution made in the soil. 
The greater the number of points at which there are particles of fertilizer 
in the soil, the more rapid will be the solution and the diffusion of tic 
plant-food material. Mechanical condition is also important frcm the 
standpoint of distribution through fertilizer drills. The material should 
be in what is known as a drillable condition. It should not only 1 e 
thoroughly pulverized, but also should be sufficiently dry to feed through 
the mechanism of the drill at a uniform rate. Wet, sticky material clogs 
up the drill and causes faulty distribution. 

High-Grade vs. Low-Grade Fertilizers.- — Thousands of tons of low- 
grade fertilizer are bought by farmers because the price is low, when, as 
a matter of fact, the s;ime money invested in a lesser amount of high- 
grade fertilizer would have given them better results. Low-grade fertil- 
izers, as a rule, contain varying amounts of filler or inert matter. This 
sometimes constitutes as much as one-half the weight of the fertilizer. 
It costs just as much to provide bags and handle this material as it d< es 
the more active portion. Furthermore, the farmer pays for the bags 
and freight on this worthless material. At the same time, he hauls it 
from the railway station to his farm, unloads it and afterwards applies 
it to his fields with much more expenditure of time and effort than would 
be required for a smaller amount of high-grade material containing equally 
as much plant food. 

Use of Fertilizers. — The most economical use of commercial fertil- 
izers is secured only when a systematic crop rotation is practiced and 
the soil is maintained in good physical condition and well supplied with 
organic matter and moisture. The soil should contain sufficient lime to 
prevent the accumulation of acids, so that legumes such as clover will 
thrive. Every crop rotation should have a suitable legume occurring 
once every third to fifth year. The presence of legumes will lessen the 
necessity for nitrogen in the fertilizer. Jl is estimated that nitrogen can 
be secund through the growing of legumes at a cost of approximately 
four cents per pound, whereas it costs fifteen to twenty cents when pur- 
chased in a comnieici.il form. 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 61 

Value of Crop Determines Rate of Fertilization. — Crops are divided 
into two classes with reference to the use of commercial fertilizers. The 
first class includes those crops having a comparatively low money value, 
such as hay and the general grain crops. Because of the low money value 
it is possible to apply only small amounts of fertilizer profitably. It is 
also necessary that the crops use as large a proportion of the applied 
material as possible. The cropping system should be arranged so as to 
utilize the residues of previous applications. As a rule it is wise to pur- 
chase very little nitrogen for such crops, since their needs can generally 
be met by growing suitable legumes in the rotation. In the temperate 
climate of the United States and Canada, east of the 100th meridian, red 
clover is the crop best adapted for this purpose, although there are other 
clovers and annual legumes that may meet local conditions better. In 
the southern part of the United States cowpeas, soy beans, Lespedeza 
clover, crimson clover and some other legumes are best suited for this 
purpose. West of the Mississippi River alfalfa will pretty fully meet the 
needs of the soil for nitrogen. Ordinarily it will be grown several years 
in succession. 

Valuable Products Justify Heavy Fertilization. — The second class 
of crops includes those having a high money value per acre and for which 
large applications of high-grade fertilizers may be economically used. 
Among such crops may be mentioned tobacco, cabbage, early peas, 
spinach, asparagus and even early potatoes. Because of the high money 
value of these crops a larger investment in fertilizers may be more than 
paid for, even though the percentage increase in yield is no greater than 
when fertilizers are applied to crops of low money value. In growing 
early truck crops, especially when grown along the lower portion of the 
Atlantic seaboard or in the southern states, the truck farmer who can get 
his product into the northern markets earliest is the one who receives 
the fancy prices. Such markets call for products of high quality, and 
quality in many cases is determined by the rate of growth In such 
crops as lettuce, radishes, spinach, etc., succulence and tenderness of the 
product are essential. These qualities, together with earliness, are often 
determined not only by the time of planting and the character of soil on 
which the crops are grown, but also by the character of the fertilizer used. 
We, therefore, find such farmers using fertilizers that are readily soluble 
and well supplied with available nitrogen. Nitrogen tends to accelerate 
vegetative growth and to give quality to early vegetables. It is not 
unusual to find truck farmers applying as much as a ton per acre of a 
high-grade fertilizer. The crop grown may use a comparatively small 
portion of the constituents applied. This calls for a rotation of crops on 
the part of such a farmer so that other and less valuable crops may follow 
and be benefited by the residual effect of the fertilizer. 

A strict classification of crops into the two classes mentioned is 
impossible. Conditions which would place a crop in one group in one 



62 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

locality may place it in the other group in a distant locality. The high 
price of a crop is in some cases determined by location. For example, 
the early strawberries and early potatoes of the South that reach northern 
markets very early are often worth five to ten times as much per unit as 
are the late strawberries and late potatoes grown in the North and at some 
distance from markets. 

Character of Fertilizer Related to Soil. — In general, fertilizers that 
stimulate the production of seeds and fruit should be used on rich lands. 
On poor land the elements that force vegetative growth combined with 
those that mature fruit may be used. High-grade phosphates in a readily 
available form hasten maturity and increase the proportion of fruit. 
This is well illustrated in the fertilizer plats at the Ohio and Pennsylvania 
Experiment Stations. As the oats and wheat approach maturity on 
these plats the visitor is at once impressed with the earlier period of 
ripening of those grown on plats treated with acid phosphate. Nitrogen 
tends to a prolonged growth of the crop and retards maturity. The 
grain on the plats treated with liberal applications of nitrogen matures 
a week or ten days later than on the phosphate-treated plats. 

In the use of fertilizers one should distinguish between a large in- 
crease of crop and a profitable increase, and this will be determined chiefly 
by the value of the crop grown. In general there will be an increase in 
yield accompanying an increase in the amount of fertilizer used, but it 
is a fact that the first unit of application, that is, the first two hundred 
or four hundred pounds per acre, will give a relatively larger return than 
the second or third unit, and there will always be a place where an added 
unit will give a return, the value of which will be no greater than the 
cost of the unit of fertilizer. It is most profitable to stop before one 
reaches this point in the application of fertilizers. 

Finally, the purchaser of fertilizers should bear in mind that the 
composition of the fertilizer and availability of its constituents, its 
mechanical condition, the economy of its purchase and application are 
all factors that bear directly upon the economy of its use. This calls for 
a knowledge of the requirements of the soil and the crops grown. 

What the Farmer Should Know. — Commercial fertilizers are valuable 
mainly because they furnish nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. In 
some cases they may act as stimulants, but their chief function is to 
supply available plant food. The returns will be approximately in pro- 
portion to their content of such constituents, when the selection is so 
made that it meets the needs of the soil and crops to which applied. The 
agricultural value of these constituents depends largely upon their chem- 
ical form, and these tonus must be contained in products of well-defined 
character and composition. They may be purchased as such from both 
dealers and manufacturers. The fanner may put them together in pro- 
portions to meel his own needs, if he is competent to do so. 

The farmer should know the deficiency of the soil on his farm. He 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 63 

should also know the requirements of the plants with which he deals. 
He may secure these facts in a general way from the state experiment 
station, but the details can best be ascertained by actual field tests by 
the farmer himself on his own farm. Such tests do not necessitate carefully 
laid out plats of a definite size. Farmers, as a rule, do not have the time 
and patience to do much experimenting, neither do they have the train- 
ing, experience and facilities for such work; but any farmer may make 
a fair comparison of two or more kinds of fertilizers, or he may test the 
efficiency of any fertilizer ingredient, such as nitrogen, potash or phos- 
phorus, on his soil. This can be done by applying a different character 
of fertilizer through his fertilizer drill, whether it be attached to the corn 
planter, the potato planter or to the grain drill, to a definite number of 
rows running clear through the field. This, if marked at one end of the 
field by stakes, is easily and readily compared at harvest time with the 
rows on either side treated with the usual fertilizers or in the usual way. 
Much can often be determined by observation, but more definite results 
are obtained by measuring the product of a certain number of rows 
specially treated, as compared with an equal number adjacent treated in 
the usual way. 

A rapid growth and a dark-green color of foliage indicate the presence 
of an ample supply of nitrogen in the soil. If the rank growth is accom- 
panied by a watery appearance it suggests a deficiency of phosphoric 
acid. If plants make a stunted growth under normal conditions of sun- 
shine, temperature and water supply, and mature unduly early, it indicates 
sufficient phosphoric acid in the soil, and suggests that nitrogen or per- 
haps potash may materially improve the crop. Potash fertilizers are of 
special benefit in case of tobacco, beets and the legumes. 

The user of commercial fertilizers should place his main dependence 
upon those that have given him best results. New brands or modified 
mixtures should be tried on a small scale and in an experimental way 
until it has been demonstrated that they are better and more economical 
to use than his old standby. Emphasis should also be placed upon the 
importance of a systematic use of fertilizers. This can be accomplished 
through a definite cropping system and a definite scheme of manuring 
and fertilizing worked out in such a way as best to meet the needs of the 
soil and crops. It should take into account the fullest possible utilization 
of the home and local supplies of manure. For example, it is found that 
the general farm crops in Pennsylvania are most frequently grown in a 
rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat and two years of mixed clover 
and timothy hay. On limestone soils such crops call for a scheme of 
treatment about as follows: For the corn, 6 to 10 loads of manure per 
acre should be applied and supplemented with 200 pounds acid phos- 
phate; to the oats following the corn, no fertilizer except when the soil is 
poor, in which case 150 to 200 pounds per acre of acid phosphate may be 
used; to the wheat, 350 pounds per acre of acid phosphate, 100 pounds 



64 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



muriate of potash and 50 pounds of nitrate of soda should be applied; 
the clover following the wheat ("ills for no fertilizer, but the timothy 
during the second year the land is in grass may be profitably treated with 
a complete fertilizer consisting of 150 pounds of acid phosphate, 150 
pounds nitrate of soda and 50 pounds muriate of potash, applied broad- 
cast early in the spring just as the grass starts to grow. Such a scheme 
of treatment makes a place for all the manure on the average farm and 
provides for the application of the fertilizer where it will he most fully 

used and give the largest returns. 

A similar scheme of treatment will be found to fit various localities 




Effect of Top Dkessixg Meadows with Commercial Fertilizer. 

On loft, average yield, 2060 pounds cured hay per acre. 
On right, average yield, 3637 pounds cured hay per acre. 

Grass on right, top dressed early each spring with 350 pounds per acre of 7-7-7 
fertilizer. Average of four consecutive years. 



in all states. The details will be determined by local conditions, and 
frequently they have already been worked ou1 for various localities either 
by the experiment station of the state or by farmers. It is, therefore, 
important that every farmer become informed on the best practice for 
his locality. 

How to Determine Needs of Soil. — The fertilizer needs of a soil are 
best determined by applying to the soil and forthecrops grown different 

kinds and combinations of fertilizers. This puts the question directly 
to the soil, and the crops give the answer by their growth and condition. 
Such soil tests with fertilizers have proven more practicable and satis- 
factory than any others thus far devised. A chemical analysis of the soil 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 



65 



is thought by many to enable the farmer or the soil expert to judge as to 
the character of the fertilizer needed. This, however, is not the case, 
and such chemical analyses are as a rule of very little help in this respect. 
The chief difficulty with this method lies in the fact that such analyses 
do not determine the availability of the plant food present. Another 
method which is fairly satisfactory is to make pot tests with the soil in 
question and for the crops to be grown. Such tests may frequently be 
completed in a shorter period of time than can field tests. They are not, 
however, so satisfactory as field tests because the crops are not grown 
under field conditions. 




Effect of Fertilizers on the Growth of Sweet Clover. 

Soil from virgin cut-over land in Pennsylvania. 
Ca — Lime. N — Nitrogen. P — Phosphorus. K — Potash. 



Effect Modified by Soil and Crop. — The fertilizer to be used is deter- 
mined both by the needs of the soil and the crop grown. A commercial 
fertilizer is beneficial chiefly because of the plant-food elements it supplies. 
Its best action is accomplished when the soil is in good physical condition 
and when there is a good supply of moisture and organic matter. The 
effect of a fertilizer under one set of soil conditions may be reversed when 
the conditions are materially changed. Under favorable conditions, 
for example, nitrification in the soil might proceed with sufficient activity 
to supply a certain crop with all the nitrogen needed for normal growth. 
The following season being cold and accompanied by an excess of moisture 
might result in slow nitrification, and this might materially diminish the 
growth of the crop. In one case nitrogen in a readily available form 



66 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

would be much more beneficial than in the other. In the same way the 
results obtained on one farm might not be duplicated on the adjacent 
farm, although the soil is of the same formation and type, difference in 
the previous cropping or management of the soil being responsible for the 
difference in results. 

Which is the Best Fertilizer to Use? — This question is a pertinent 
one, and is often asked by practical farmers. A definite answer can seldom 
be given. The consumer of fertilizers can best answer it by tests such as 
above suggested. In a general way, however, the consumer should 
select those fertilizers which contain the largest amount of plant food 
in suitable and available forms for the least money. Until a rational 
scheme of fertilizer treatment has been established it is safest to depend 
upon high-grade fertilizers used in rather limited amounts. Low-grade 
materials and elements in slowly available form may prove cheaper for 
certain soils and crops, but their use involves a larger risk, especially 
for the farmer who is not well informed on the subject. For soils poor in 
humus, nitrogenous fertilizers will generally be advisable. For those 
well supplied with humus, phosphates and potash generally give best 
results. 

Needs of Different Soils. — Since the fertilizer is determined by both 
soil and crop, the needs of the soil can be determined only in a rather 
general way. There is no definite statement that will hold under all 
conditions. A particular soil type in one locality may be greatly bene- 
fited by a certain fertilizer, while the same type in another neighborhood 
may have quite a different requirement. 

Heavy soils generally respond to phosphates. Sandy soils are more 
likely to need potash and nitrogen, while clay soils are generally well 
supplied with potash. There are some exceptions to this rule. 

Experiments at various experiment stations show that soils vary 
widely in their fertilizer requirements. The results in one locality may be 
inapplicable in another. Acid soils respond to application of lime and 
generally to available phosphates. Marshy soils, especially these con- 
sisting chiefly of muck or peat, are generally in need of potash and seme- 
times phosphoric acid and lime. The prairie soils are as a rule deficient 
in phosphorus, and on such soils the insoluble phosphates are ecoiu niically 
used. The need for lime is frequently determined by the failure of clover 
and the encroachment of sorrel and plantain. Potassium is likely to be 
needed in soils that have long been exhaustively cropped, especially if 
hay and straw have been sold from the land as well as the grain. 

Crop Requirements. — Crops differ in their fertilizer requirements. 
This difference is due to the purpose for which the crop is grown, to the 
length of the growing season required by the crop, and to the period of 
the season when it makes its chief growth; also to the composition of the 
crop. It is also influenced by the character of the root systems. Plants 
which grow quickly generally need their food supply in a readily available 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 



67 



form. Those which grow slowly and take a long time to mature can 
utilize the more difficultly available forms of plant food. These facts 
explain why plants differ in their requirements. 

Fertilizers for Cereals and Grasses. — The cereals and grasses (Indian 
corn excepted) are similar in habits of growth and are distinguished by 
having extensive, fibrous root systems. They require comparatively 
long periods of growth, and this enables them to extract mineral food 
from comparatively insoluble sources. As a rule, however, these crops 
make the major portion of their vegetative growth during the cool part 
of the growing season. During this period nitrification is comparatively 
slow; consequently, such crops need readily available nitrogen and respond 
to fertilizers containing some nitrogen. This demands the application 




Effect of Commercial Fertilizer on Wheat on a Poor Soil. 
A complete fertilizer on the left, no fertilizer in center. 

of nitrogen in a readily available form, preferably just at the beginning 
of vegetative growth in the spring. 

Legumes Require No Nitrogen. — The clovers, peas, beans, vetches 
and in fact nearly all the crops that belong to the family of legumes have 
the power under proper soil conditions to utilize free nitrogen from the 
air; consequently, such crops require no nitrogen in the fertilizer. They 
use relatively more potash than most other forage crops; consequently, 
the mineral fertilizers with a rather high proportion of potash are generally 
most beneficial. Corn is a rather gross feeder, and since it makes the 
major portion of its vegetative growth in the warmer portion of the grow- 
ing season when nitrification is especially active, it seldom pays to apply 
much nitrogen to it. Furthermore, corn is able to make use of relatively 
insoluble phosphorus and potash. 



68 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Available Forms Best for Roots. — Root and tuber crops are generally 
regarded as a class that, because of their habits of growth, are unable to 
make extensive use of the insoluble minerals; hence, their profit al tie grt ra t b 
requires plenty of the readily available forms of fertilizing constituents. 
Nitrogen and potash are especially valuable for mangels and beets, while 
phosphates and potash together with small amounts of nitrogen are 
generally used for both white and sweet potatoes. 

Slow-Acting Fertilizers Suited to Orchards and Small Fruits. — 
Orchard trees are as a rule slow growing and do not demand quick-acting 
fertilizers. In old orchards that are large and are top dressed it may, 
however, be good practice to use the readily soluble forms of plant food in 
order that it may be carried into the soil by rainfall and brought in contact 
with the zones of root activity. Where orchards are manured from the 
beginning, and especially where they are inter-tilled, barnyard manure and 
the more difficultly soluble forms of fertilizers may be economically used. 

The fertilizer requirements of small fruits are similar to those of 
orchard fruits. As a rule smaller fruits make a more rapid growth ; con- 
sequently, heavier applications of soluble fertilizing constituents may 
be used. 

Nitrogen Needed for Vegetables. — The market garden crops, and 
especially those grown for their vegetative parts, demand rather liberal 
applications of available nitrogen. The higher the value of the crop 
per unit of weight, the larger are the applications of nitrogen that may 
be used economically. In such crops as early cabbage, beets, peas, etc., 
earliness and quality are of prime importance. To be highly remunerative 
such crops must be harvested early; in other words, they must be forced. 
At this period of the year decomposition processes in the soil are not 
especially active. For this reason an abundance of available nitrogen is 
demanded. 

Fertilizers for Cotton. — Perhaps no crop has been subjected to more 
experiments with fertilizers than cotton. Cotton is a plant that responds 
promptly and profitably to judicious fertilization. Such fertilization 
should hasten the maturity of the crop. This tends to increase the 
climatic area in which cotton may be grown. In recent years it has be- 
come of great importance in connection with the cotton boll weevil. 
This insect multiplies rapidly throughout the season, its numbers becoming 
very great in the latter part of the season. It feeds on the cotton bolls. 
\\ hen the bolls are matured early, the insects being less numerous at that 
season, a larger proportion of the bolls escapes infestation than when they 
mature late. The most judicious proportions of nitrogen, soluble phos- 
phoric acid and potash in a complete fertilizer for cotton has not been 
determined with entire accuracy. Those for Georgia are nitrogen 1, 
potash 1, phosphoric acid -\\ ; for South Carolina, nitrogen 1, potash ,, 
phosphoric acid 2\\ and for general use nitrogen 1, potash 1, phosphoric 
acid 2| or 3 will perhaps approximate reasonable accuracy. 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 69 

The amount of fertilizer which may be profitably used varies widely 
with the season, nature of soil and other circumstances. On an average 
the maximum amounts indicated for Georgia are nitrogen 20 pounds, 
potash 20 pounds, phosphoric acid 70 pounds; those for South Carolina, 
nitrogen 20 pounds, potash 15 pounds, phosphoric acid 50 pounds. 

Miscellaneous Fertilizer Facts. — Wheat, to which a moderate 
amount of manure has been applied, will not need additional nitrogen. 
In most cases the manure can be profitably supplemented with phos- 
phoric acid, and on some soils a small amount of potash may be included. 
When the wheat field is seeded to clover and grass which is to be left 
down for hay, the phosphoric acid and potash in the fertilizer should be 
increased somewhat. 

Oats as a rule receive no commercial fertilizer. On soils low in fertil- 
ity small applications of readily soluble nitrogen and phosphoric acid 
applied at seeding time are advisable. Winter oats, grown mostly in the 
South, are generally fertilized with light applications of phosphorus and 
potash when seeded in the fall, and are top dressed with nitrate of soda 
in the spring. 

For tobacco, barnyard manure occupies a leading position as a fer- 
tilizer, both because of its cheapness and effectiveness. When manure 
is not available in sufficient quantities commercial fertilizers are frequently 
resorted to. In fact, the manure is often supplemented with commercial 
fertilizers. This crop generally requires a complete fertilizer. Cotton- 
seed meal is frequently used as a source of nitrogen for tobacco. How- 
ever, manure is not used for bright tobacco and only very small amounts 
of cottonseed meal are used. 

When nitrogen is required by a crop having a long growing season 
it is generally advisable to combine it in two forms, one readily available 
as nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, the other in an organic form, 
as dried blood or cottonseed meal. Where nitrate of soda is depended 
upon entirely, two or more applications may be given during the growing 
season. This is applicable to open, leachy soils, but is not essential on 
heavy soils. 

Effect of Fertilizers on Proportion of Straw to Grain. — The pro- 
portion of straw to grain is influenced by season, soil and character of 
fertilizer. At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, in a test extending 
through many years, it was found that for twenty-four different fertilizers 
applied there were produced 52 pounds of stover for each 70 pounds of 
ear corn. The average proportion for seven complete fertilizers was 55.4 
pounds stover to 70 pounds corn. Barnyard manure gave 47.6 pounds 
stover to 70 pounds corn, while a complete fertilizer containing dried 
blood gave 58 pounds stover to 70 pounds corn. In case of oats, the 
largest relative yield of straw was from barnyard manure. The average 
for twenty-four different fertilizers was 45 pounds straw per bushel of 
oats. The average for seven complete fertilizers was 42 pounds straw 



70 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



per bushel of oats. In general, the proportion of straw will be increased 
by an abundance of nitrogen, while the proportion of grain will be increased 
by liberal supplies of phosphoric acid. 

This is a matter of considerable practical importance in the growing 
of both oats and wheat. There is often such a marked tendency for these 
crops to produce vegetative growth that the straw lodges before maturity. 
This makes harvesting of the crops with machinery difficult. It smothers 
out the clover and grasses that are sometimes seeded with them. Lodging 
also prevents satisfactory filling of the heads of grain and maturing of 




Soil Fertility Plats, Pennsylvania Agric rowuBAL Experiment Station. 

On left, 320 pounds land plaster. 
Center, no fertilizer. 

On right, dissolved bone-black, containing 4S pounds phosphoric acid and muriate 
of potash 200 pounds. 

the kernels. A properly balanced fertilizer or the proper proportion of 
available constituents in the soil for these crops, therefore, is essential. 

Principles Governing Profitable Use of Fertilizers. — Definite rules 
relative to amount and character of fertilizer for soils or crops cannot be 
laid down, but there are certain principles that should always be taken 
into consideration in connection with the use of fertilizers. In general, 
the higher the acre value of the crop grown the larger the amount of fer- 
tilizer that can be profitably used. This is a principle that will hold even 
though the same percentage increase from a definite investment in fer- 
tilizer is secured. 

Another principle which always holds is that each additional unit of 
fertilizer gives a smaller increase in crop growth than the preceding one; 
consequently, the lower the money value of the crop the smaller the 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 



71 



amount of fertilizer that can be profitably used. This principle is well 
illustrated in an experiment with fertilizers used in different amounts on 
cotton at the Georgia Experiment Station. In this experiment a fertilizer 
valued at about $20 per ton was applied in amounts valued at $4, $8 
and $12 per acre respectively. As an average of three years with these 
applications the increase in lint and seed, respectively, resulting from the 
applications were valued at $10.11, $15.69 and $21.17, the percentage of 
profit on the investment in fertilizers being 153, 96 and 76 for the three 
amounts respectively. These results coincide with the principle above 
stated. In the above experiment the increase in yield of seed cotton for 
400 pounds of fertilizer was 281 pounds. The increase for 800 pounds 
was not twice 281, which would be 562, but was only 436 pounds. The 
increase for 1200 pounds was not three times 281, which would equal 843, 
but was only 588 pounds. The smallest amount of fertilizer produced 
the largest return on the capital invested in fertilizer, although the largest 
amount made the largest aggregate profit. In this case each $4 invested 
brought a return greater than the actual investment, and it is evident 
that it might have been possible to add another $4 worth of fertilizer 
and still further increase the total profit per acre, although the percentage 
return on the investment would have been reduced still further. The 
fertilizer, however, is only part of the investment, since the rent of land 
and cost of labor and seed are comparatively large items. 

If a planter has $1400 to invest in the growing of cotton and the rent 
of land, seed, labor and every expense connected with the cost of culti- 
vation and picking aggregated $28 per acre, he can plant fifty acres. If 
his profit without fertilizer is $3 per acre, it will aggregate $150, or lOf 
per cent on the investment. On the basis of the above experiment and 
with the same capital, how much will he be justified in reducing his acre- 
age in order to purchase fertilizers? 

By inspection we find: 



Acres. 


Cost of 
Growing 
One Acre. 


Total 
Cost. 


Profit 
per Acre. 


Total 
Profit. 


Per Cent 

on 

Investment. 


50 

43.75 

38 . 9 


$28 . 00 
32.00 
36.00 
40.00 


$1,400.00 

1,400.00 
1,400.00 
1,400.00 


$3.00 

9.11 

10.69 

12.17 


$150.00 
398.56 
415.84 
425.00 


10.7 
28.4 
29.7 


35 


30.3 



The increased cost per acre represents the addition of fertilizers to the 
amount of $4, $8 and $12 and is justified up to the $12 limit where the 
maximum profit of $425 is secured. By growing 35 acres well fertilized, 
his percentage profit on capital invested is 30| instead of lOf where no 
fertilizer was to be used. 

When to Apply Fertilizers. — The time at which to apply commercial 
fertilizer will be determined by the needs of the crop, kind of fertilizer, 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



rate of application, character of soil and subsoil, convenience of the farmer 
and the economy in applying. Plenty of plant food should be within 
reach of the plants when growth is rapid. Fertilizers that are rcadil> 
lost by leaching should not be applied long before needed. Heavy applica- 
tions may be divided into two or three portions and applied as needed. 
On heavy soils with retentive subsoils leaching is slight. On sandy soils 
it may be pronounced. As a rule it will be economy to apply small and 
moderate applications of fertilizer just prior to or at seeding time. Most 
planting and drilling machinery is now supplied with fertilizer attach- 
ments. These provide for the proper distribution of the fertilizer at the 
time of seeding or planting without much additional labor. So long as 
the amount which is distributed in the immediate vicinity of the seed is 
not sufficient to interfere with germination and early growth, the method is 
satisfactory. If the concentration of the soil solution in contact with 
seeds equals the concentration within the cells of the seeds, they will be 
unable to absorb water from the soil. This may prevent germination and 
cause the seed to rot. For this reason it is never wise to apply large 
applications in this way. Such applications should be applied si me 
time in advance of seeding or planting in order that the fertilizers may 
have become uniformly disseminated through the soil. Another method 
in common use is to broadcast a portion of the fertilizer and mix it with 
the soil by harrowing. The remainder is then applied through the fertil- 
izer attachment of the seeding machinery. As previously noted, soluble 
nitrates may be advantageously applied just at the time when the growing 
crop is most in need of available nitrogen. This is especially applicable 
on sandy, leachy soils. So far as danger of loss is concerned, the potash 
and phosphorus may be applied at almost any time. 

Readily soluble fertilizers are preferable for the top dressing of grass 
land, and should be applied very early in the spring, just as the grass is 
starting to grow. Early application is necessary because the growth 
demands it early in the season, and also because the fertilizer must be 
carried into the soil by rains in order to be brought into contact with the 
roots. 

Organic fertilizers, and especially manure, are best applied some 
time in advance of seeding. The early Btages of decomposition frequ< nth 
give rise to deleterious compounds. These should have time to disappi ar 
before the crop i< started. 

Methods of Application. — The manner of applying fertilizer depends 
on a number of conditions, especially the kind of fertilizer, the amount 
to lie used, the character of the crop and the method of its tillage. It is 
a good practice to distribute the potash and phosphoric acid in that portion 
of the soil where the root activity of the crop grown i> mosrt abundant. 
In case of inter-tilled crops this will generally be in the lower two-thirds 
of the plowed portion of the soil. The surface two inches are so frequently 
cultivated during the early period that roots are destroyed. At other 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 73 

seasons it is likely to be so dry that roots cannot grow in it. Plant food 
does little good so long as it remains at the surface. It is not so essential 
to put the soluble nitrates in this lower zone because there is a great 
tendency for them to pass downward in the soil. 

Where very small applications are used it is often thought advisable 
to deposit the fertilizer with the seed or plant in order that it may have 
an abundance of plant food at the very outset. This method stimulates 
the plant in its early stages of growth. It is probably more applicable 
to crops that are seeded or planted very early when the ground is cold 
and bacterial activity is slow. 

In the cotton belt there are two methods of applying fertilizers. 
Experiments at the Georgia Experiment Station have shown that the 
method known as "bedding on the fertilizer" has given better results 
than applying the fertilizer through the fertilizer drill at time of seeding 
cotton. In the first method the fertilizer is distributed over the bottom 
of a furrow in which the cotton is planted one week or ten days later. 
The second method deposits the fertilizer in close proximity to the seed 
at planting time. As an average of four years the per cent profit on the 
investment in fertilizer was 48 when applied with the seed and 90 when 
"bedded on the fertilizer." 

Purchase of Fertilizers. — The concentrated high-grade fertilizer 
materials necessarily command a higher price than low-grade materials 
and those containing small amounts of plant food. As a rule the high- 
grade materials are the cheapest. The inexperienced farmer is too much 
inclined to purchase fertilizers chiefly on the ton basis, without regard to 
the amount or form of plant-food constituents they contain. He should 
bear in mind that he is not buying mere weight, but that he is paying for 
one or more of the plant-food constituents, and those fertilizers that 
are richest in plant food will generally supply these ingredients at the 
lowest cost per unit. This is obvious from what has been previous^ 
said relative to the costs of manufacturing, handling and shipping fer- 
tilizers. It is well also to consider the relative economy of retail versus 
wholesale rates on fertilizers. The more hands a fertilizer passes through 
the greater will be its cost when it reaches the consumer. Each dealer 
must of necessity make some profit on his transaction. Small shipments 
and small consigmnents call for higher freight rates and additional labor 
in making out bills and collecting accounts. These all entail increased 
expense. 

There is now an increased tendency on the part of farmers to co- 
operate in the purchase of fertilizers. As a rule the character of fertilizer 
that best meets the needs of a farmer in a particular locality will in general 
be a good fertilizer for his neighbors. It is possible for neighbors to com- 
bine and purchase their fertilizers in carload lots directly from the manu- 
facturer, saving the profit of the middleman and getting carload freight 
rates which will very materially reduce the cost of the fertilizers laid 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



clown at their railway stations. Such co-operation in buying will gen- 
erally lead to a discussion of the merits of the different brands of fertilizers, 
and in this way the purchase is generally based upon the combined 
judgment of the co-operating farmers instead of on an individual farmer. 
If by chance a diversity of crops and soils of the neighborhood is such 
that different brands are required, there will be no difficulty in having 
several brands shipped in the same car. 

It is also wise to purchase early and avoid the rush which often 
causes a delay in shipments in the rush season. Then, too, early orders 
enable the farmer to plan more definitely relative to his fertilizer needs 
and give more careful consideration to the brand most likely to meet his 
needs. In this way he is enabled to receive and haul his fertilizer to his 
farm at a time when the field work does not demand the time of himself 
and teams. 

It is also well to consider the relative advantages of buying mixed 
fertilizers as compared with the unmixed goods. In the nature of things 
the manufacturer with his well-equipped plant should be able to mix 
fertilizers more thoroughly and economically than the farmer. This, 
however, is not always done, since the farmer can frequently utilize labor for 
mixing fertilizers when it would otherwise be unemployed. The advantages 
of buying unmixed goods are that the farmer can make the mixture 
that in his judgment will best meet his needs. He may not be able to 
secure on the market just such a mixture. Furthermore, it will enable 
him to make different mixtures and try them on his soil and for his crops 
with the view of gaining information relative to the character of fertilizer 
that will best meet his future needs. 

Home Mixing of Fertilizers.— The home mixing of fertilizers demands 
on the part of the farmer a fair knowledge of fertilizers and the needs of 
soils and crops. Without this, he had probably best depend upon ready 
mixed goods such as are recommended for his conditions. Furthermore, 
much will depend upon whether or not he can purchase a fertilizer the 
composition of which, in his judgment, is what he should have, and also 
whether or not there would be much saving in buying unmixed goods 
when the additional labor of mixing is taken into account. Such a practice 
is likely to be economical only when the fertilizers are used rather exten- 
sively. Where only a few hundred pounds are used by the farmer it will 
generally not be advisable for him to attempt to mix his own fertilizer. 

So far as the mechanical process is concerned, fertilizers can be 
mixed by the farmer on the farm very satisfactorily. It does not require 
,-i mechanical mixer, although this may be economical when it is done on 
:i large scale. When (lie unmixed goods an- in good mechanical condition, 
as they should he. definite weights or measures of the different constitu- 
ents may be placed on a tight barn floor and shoveled over a number of 
times until the mixture takes on a uniform color. It is advisable to empty 
not more than 400 to 600 pounds at one lime. It can be more thoroughly 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 



75 



mixed in small quantities. A hoe and square-pointed shovel are best 
suited for the mixing. A broom and an ordinary 2 by 6 foot sand screen 
with three meshes to the inch are all that are necessary. This assumes 
that the fertilizer comes in bags of definite weight, and that by putting 
in one bag of one ingredient and two or three of another, etc., a proper 
proportion can be secured. Greater exactness can, of course, be obtained 
by using platform scales and weighing roughly the amounts of the different 
kinds that are brought together. It is suggested that the most bulky 
ingredient be placed at the bottom of the pile and the least bulky on top. 
After it is mixed with a shovel and hoe it should be thrown through the 
screen. This removes all lumps and perfects the mixing. The lumps, 
should there be any, should be crushed before they are allowed to go 
into the next mixing batch. After thorough mixing the material will be 
ready to return to the bags. It can be hauled to the field when needed. 

It is well to remember that most fertilizers absorb moisture, increase 
in weight and later on dry out and become hard. It is, therefore, wise 
to keep them in a building which is fairly dry. 

The following list of fertilizer materials, together with the per- 
centage of the several ingredients which they contain, is given as an aid 
to those making home mixtures of fertilizers: 

List of Materials Used in Home-Mixing of Fertilizers.* 



Name of Material. 



Nitrate of soda 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Dried blood 

Tankage (meat) 

Tankage (bone) 

Ground bone 

Acid phosphate, 14 per cent. . 
Acid phosphate, 12 per cent. . 

Dissolved bone-black 

Basic slag 

Rock phosphate 

Muriate of potash 

High-grade sulphate of potash 

Kainite 

Wood-ashes 



Nitrogen, 
per cent. 



15 

20 
10 

7.4 

5 

2.5 





















Phosphoric 

Acid, 

per cent. 








10 
15 
23 
11 
12 
15 
15 
18-30 









Potash, 
per cent. 














50 
50 
12 
6 



Availability. 



Very quick 

Quick 

Medium 

Slow 

Slow 

Slow 

Quick 

Quick 

Medium 

Slow 

Very slow 

Quick 

Quick 

Quick 

Medium 



REFERENCES 
"Manures and Fertilizers." Wheeler. 
"Fertilizers." Voorhees. 
"Fertilizers and Crops." Van Slyke. 

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 392. "Fertilizer Facts for the Farmer." 
South Carolina Expt. Station Bulletin 182. "Potash." 

Texas Expt. Station Bulletin 167. "Commercial Fertilizers and Their Use." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

388 " Incompatibles in Fertilizer Mixtures." 

398. "Commercial Fertilizers in the South." 

* From the Farmers' Cyclip"dia 



CHAPTER 5 
Barnyard, Stable and Green Manures 



Barnyard and stable manure consists of the solid and liquid void- 
ings of the farm animals mixed with various kinds and amounts of bedding. 
The term stable manure designates manure just as it comes from the 
stable in its fresh state. Yard manure applies to that which has accu- 
mulated or been kept for some time in piles in the barnyard. Fresh 
manure means that which is only a few hours or, at most, a few days old. 
The term rotted manure is used to designate that which has gone through 
considerable fermentation and is more or less disintegrated. The term 
mixed manure applies to that of the different species of farm animals 
when brought together in the same manure heap. 

Manure an Important Farm Asset. — The manure of farm animals is 
the most valuable by-product of American farms. Numerous tests and 
analyses have been made to determine the amount and composition of 
both the liquid and solid excrements for different classes of farm animals. 
The average yield of fresh manure and its content of essential plant-food 
constituents, together with the yearly value of these, is given in the fol- 
lowing table for different classes of animals. The calculations in this 
table are based on the composition of the solid and liquid excrements 
given in a subsequent table in this chapter. The plant-food constituents 
are valued as follows: nitrogen eighteen cents a pound, phosphoric acid 
four cents a pound, potash five cents a pound. 

Average Yield and Yearly Value of Fresh Manure of Farm Animals, 
Exclusive of Bedding. 



Kind (if Livestock. 



Cow. . . 
I [orse 
Pig.... 
Sheep. . 
Poultry 



Amount 

of 

Manure 
Yearly, 

pounds. 



28,000 
1 5,000 
3,000 

1,140 
30 



Pounds of Ingredients Yearly. 



Nitrogen. 



124. 
96 . 
14.4 
11 02 

111 



Phosphoric 
Acid. 



50. 

42. 
9.54 

1 7:. 
.15 



Potash. 



132. 

81. 
11.4 

9.88 
, L23 



Yearly 
Value. 



$30.92 

23.01 

3.54 

2.67 

. 0S7 



The following table gives the numbers of the different classes of farm 
animals in the United States according to the census of 1910, together with 
the calculated value of manure for cadi class, the calculations being based 
upon the valuation of manure given in the preceding table. In case of 
cattle, the valuation has been reduced, the reduction being based on the 

(76) 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 77 

relative numbers and values of milch cows as compared with all other 
cattle. 



Animals in the United States in 1910 ani 
their Manure. 


Estimated Value of 


Class. 


Number of 
Animals. 


Value of Manure. 


Per Head. 


Total. 


Horses 

Cattle (all kinds) 


27,618,242 
63,682,648 
59,473,636 

55,868,543 
295,880,000 


$23.00 
23.00* 
3.54 
2.67 
.087 


$635,219,566.00 

1,464,700,904.00 

210 536 671 00 


Swine . 


Sheep and goats 


149,169,010.00 
25,741,560.00 


Poultry 




Total value 


$2,485,367,711.00 









Manure is valuable because: (1) it contains the three essential ele- 
ments of plant food, namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium; (2) 
it furnishes organic matter which is converted into humus in the soil and 
materially improves the physical condition, water-holding capacity and 
chemical and bacterial activities in the soil; (3) it introduces beneficial 
forms of bacteria in the soil and these multiply and become increasingly 
beneficial as their numbers increase. 

As a Source of Plant Food. — The composition of manure varies with 
the kind of animals producing it, 'the age of animals and the amount 
and quality of the feed they consume. The manure consists of the solid 
excrements and the liquids or urine. These differ in their composition. 
The urine is the most valuable part of the excreta of animals. The aver- 
age mixed stable and barnyard manure contains approximately ten pounds 
nitrogen, six pounds phosphoric acid and eight pounds potash in each ton 
of manure. The solid portions consist chiefly of the undigested portions 
of the food consumed, together with the straw or bedding that has been 
used in the stables. The solid portions contain approximately one-third 
of the total nitrogen, one-fifth of the total potash and nearly all of the 
phosphoric acid voided by animals. The urine contains about two-thirds 
of the total nitrogen, four-fifths of the potash and very little of the phos- 
phoric acid. The elements found in the urine are insoluble. They are 
not immediately available as food for plants, but become so more quickly 
than the constituents in the solid portions. 

Of the nitrogen in barnyard manure, that in the urine will be most 
readily available; that in the finely divided matter of the feces will be 
more slowly available; and that in the bedding will be most slowly avail- 
able. For this reason the availability of the nitrogen in manure when 
applied to the soil is distributed throughout a comparatively long period. 
Availability will vary greatly with the nature and treatment of the manure. 

-* Estimated value based on relative numbers and values of milch cows and all other kinds of cattle. 



78 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Experiments at several experiment stations show that the nitrogen in 
manure is much less readily available than that in either nitrate of soda or 
sulphate of ammonia. Because of this fact, barnyard manure when used 
for certain truck crops is sometimes supplemented with available forms of 
nitrogen. In such cases it is not advisable to mix the chemical forms of 
nitrogen with the manure. Such mixture is likely to result in a loss of 
available nitrogen through denitrification in the manure pile. It is best, 
therefore, to apply the chemical form of nitrogen by itself, preferably 
some time after the manure has been applied. 

Physical Effect of Manures. — Barnyard and stable manure improves 
the physical condition of heavy soils by increasing their tilth and making 
them easier to cultivate. It improves loose, sandy soils by holding the 
particles together and increasing the water-holding capacity. It, there- 
fore, has the reverse effect on these two extremes of soil. 

Manure tends to equalize the supply and distribution of water in 
the soil and renders the soil less subject to erosion and injury by winds. 
Experiments conducted by Professor King at the Wisconsin Experiment 
Station show that manured land contained eighteen tons more water per 
acre in the upper foot of soil than similar land unmanured, and thirty- 
four tons more in the soil to a depth of three feet. 

Biological Effect of Manure. — Farm manures introduce into the 
soil a variety of bacteria and ferments. These help increase the supply 
of available plant food. Barnyard manure sometimes causes denitrifi- 
cation in the soil. By this process, nitrogen is set free in a gaseous form 
and may escape. This is likely to be most serious as a result of changing 
nitrates in the soil into other forms and therefore reducing the available 
nitrogen supply. Experiments show that this occurs only in exceptional 
cases and generally when unusually large applications of manure have 
been made. On the other hand, experiments in considerable number indi- 
cate that applications of manure may actually favor nitrification and aid 
in the formation of nitrates. At the Delaware Experiment Station it 
was found that soil liberally manured and producing hay at the rate of 
six tons per acre contained several times as many bacteria as were found 
in the same soil which had hut little manure and was producing hay at 
the rate of about one ton per acre. 

The Value of Manure. — The value of manure depends: (1) upon 
the class of animals by which it is produced; (2) upon the age of the 
animals producing it; and (3) upon the character of feed from which 
produced. Animals that are used for breeding purposes or for the pro- 
duction of milk or wool retain a larger proportion of the plant-food con- 
atituents of the food they consume. This will be found in their products, 
whether it be the young animals to which they give birth or the milk or 
wool produced by the cow and sheep respectively. Young animals that 
are making rapid growth use a portion of the plant-food constituents, 
and this is built into the tissues and bono of such animals. Old animals 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 79 

that have ceased to grow and animals that are being fattened void prac- 
tically all of the plant-food constituents in their excrements. For this 
reason the manure from different classes of animals varies considerably 
in its plant-food constituents. 

Mature animals, neither gaining nor losing in weight, excrete prac- 
tically all of the fertilizer constituents in the food consumed. Growing 
animals may excrete as little as 50 per cent of such constituents. Milch 
cows excrete 65 to 85 per cent; fattening and working animals 85 to 95 
per cent. As regards the value of equal weights of manure under average 
farm conditions, farm animals stand in the following order : poultry, sheep, 
pin;s, horses, cows. At the Mississippi Experiment Station young fatten- 
ing steers excreted on an average 84 per cent of the nitrogen, 86 per cent 
of the phosphoric acid and 92 per cent of the potash in the food consumed. 
At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, cows in milk excreted 83 per cent 
of nitrogen, 75 per cent of phosphoric acid and 92 per cent of the potash 
of their food. The amount of manure produced per thousand pounds of 
live weight of animals also varies with the class of animals, as well as 
with the method of feeding and the character of the feed consumed. Sheep 
and hogs produce the smallest amount of manure, but yield manure of 
the greatest value per ton. Cows stand first in the amount of manure 
produced, but rank lowest in the quality of manure. 

Horse Manure. — Horse manure is more variable in its composition 
than that of any other class of farm animals. This is due to the fluctua- 
tion in the amount and character of the feed given to the horse, depend- 
ing on whether he is doing heavy or light work, or whether he is idle. 
Horse manure is drier than that from cattle, and generally contains more 
fibrous material. It ferments easily, and is, therefore, considered a hot, 
quick manure. When placed in piles by itself it ferments rapidly and 
soon los2s a large part of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Because 
of its dry condition and rapid fermentation the temperature of the ma- 
nure pile becomes very high, causing it to dry out quickly. This results in 
what is commonly called fire-fanging. To prevent this, horse manure 
should be mixed with cold, heavy cow or pig manure, or the piles of horse 
manure should be compacted and kept constantly wet in order to reduce 
the presence of air and consequent rapid fermentation. The quality of 
horse manure makes it especially valuable for use in hotbeds, for the 
growing of mushrooms and for application to cold, wet soils. Horse 
manure is more bulky than that of any other class of farm animals and 
weighs less per cubic foot. 

Cattle Manure. — Cow and steer manure contains more water than 
that from other domestic animals. It is ranked as a cold manure, and 
has the lowest value, both from the standpoint of its plant-food con- 
stituents and its fertilizing value. The average cow produces 40 to 50 
pounds of dung or solid manure, and 20 to 30 pounds of urine per day. 

Hog Manure. — The manure from hogs is fairly uniform in its com- 



so 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



position, and is considered a cold, wet manure. It ferments slowly. 
Hogs of average size produce 10 to 15 pounds of manure daily, and the 
manure is somewhat richer than that from the preceding classes of animals, 
chiefly because swine are fed more largely on rich, concentrated foods. 

Sheep Manure. — Sheep manure is drier and richer than that from 
any of the domestic animals except poultry. It ferments easily and acta 
quickly in the soil. It keeps well, however, when allowed to accumulate 
in pens where it is thoroughly tramped by the animals. It is especially 
valuable for use in flower beds or for vegetables where quick action 
is desired. An average sheep produces about four to five pounds of 
manure daily. 

Poultry Manure. — Poultry manure is the richest of farm manures. 
It is especially rich in nitrogen, which is due to the fact that the urinal 
secretions are semi-solid and are voided with the solid excrements. It 
ferments easily, giving rise to the loss of nitrogen, and is very quick act- 
ing when placed in the soil. It keeps best when maintained in a fairly 
dry condition, and should be mixed with some absorbent or preservative. 
Ground rock phosphate, gypsum or dry earth are good materials for this 
purpose. Mixing with slaked lime, ashes or any alkaline material should 
be avoided. These cause a liberation of ammonia, resulting in a loss of 
nitrogen. 

The following table gives the average total production of solid and 
liquid excrements per year of the different classes of animals, together with 
their percentage of water, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. 

Average Yield and Composition of Fresh Excrements of Farm Animals.* 



Dung — Solid Excrements. 



Excreted 
per Year, 

pounds. 



Cows . 
Horse 
Pigs. . 
Sheep 

Urn 



20,000 

12,000 

1,800 

760 

30 



Water, 
per cent. 



84.0 
76.0 
80.0 
58.0 

-IS li 



( lompoaition. 



Nitrogen, 
per cent. 



0.30 
0.50 
0.60 

0.75 
1.38 



Phosphoric 

Acid. 

per cent. 



. 25 
0.35 
0.45 
0.60 
0.50 



Potash, 
per cent. 



0.10 
0.30 
0.50 
0.30 
0.41 



Urine — Liquid Excrements. 



Cows . 
Horse . 
Pigs.. 

Sheep . 



Excreted 
per Year, 
pounds. 



S.IK )0 

3,000 
1,200 

:;sn 



Water, 
per cent. 



92.0 
89.0 
07 . 5 
86 5 



Composition. 



Nitrogen, 
per cent. 



0.80 
1.20 
0.30 
1.40 



Phosphoric 

\r„l. 

per cent. 



Trace 
Trace 

0.12 
0.05 



Potash, 

per cent. 



1.4 
1.5 
0.2 
2.0 



♦This table taken from Volume Five, Farmers' Cyclopedia. 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 81 

Miscellaneous Farm Manures. — In addition to the manure from farm 
animals there is a variety of materials that may be available as manure 
on many farms. It is well to utilize these as far as possible. Among 
those most commonly met with are night-soil, leaf-mould and muck or 
peat. Night-soil is best used when mixed with some good absorbent, 
such as loam, muck or peat, and composted. Muck and peat are terms 
used to designate accumulations of vegetable matter that are frequently 
found in marshes, swamps and small ponds. Such material varies greatly 
in its composition, and is especially valuable for its content of. nitrogen, 
and for its physical effect upon the soil. Leaf-mould pertains to decayed 
accumulations of leaves frequently found in considerable quantities in 
forested areas. It is especially valuable for some classes of garden truck 
and flowers, but is ordinarily too costly because of the difficulty of gather- 
ing it in any considerable quantities. 

Value of Manure Influenced by Quality of Feed. — The plant-food 
content of manure is almost directly in proportion to the plant-food 
constituents contained in the feeds from which it comes. Thus, con- 
centrated feeds high in protein, such as cottonseed meal, wheat bran 
and oil cake, produce manure of the highest value. Ranking next 
to these are such feeds as alfalfa and clover hay and other legumes. 
The cereals, including corn and oats together with hay made from 
grasses, rank third, while manure from roots is the lowest in plant- 
food constituents and fertilizing value. Not only will the plant- 
food constituents be most abundant in the manure from the concen- 
trates, but it is likely also to be more readily available than that produced 
from roughage. 

These facts are important in connection with the selling of cash 
crops and purchasing such concentrates as cottonseed meal and bran. 
One who buys cottonseed meal as a fertilizer gets only its fertilizing value. 
If it is purchased for feeding purposes, one may secure both its feeding 
value and practically all of its manurial value. The relative price, there- 
fore, of cash crops and purchased concentrates as feed is only one phase 
of the exchange problem. Such concentrates produce manure having a 
much higher value than that from the cash crops. This should be con- 
sidered in connection with the exchange. 

The • table on next page shows the pounds of fertilizer constituents 
in one ton of different agricultural products. It indicates the exchanges 
which might, therefore, be effected with advantage. 

The feeding value of a ton of wheat bran does not differ materially 
from that of a ton of shelled corn. The difference in its feeding value 
affects the nutritive ratio rather than the energy value. By exchanging 
one ton of corn for an equal weight of wheat bran, there would be a gain 
to the farm of 21 pounds of nitrogen, 46 pounds phosphoric acid and 24 
pounds of potash, as shown by the above table. At usual prices for the 
fertilizer constituents, this gain would amount to not less than $6 worth 



82 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



of plant food. With an exchange of milk or potatoes for similar con- 
centrates, the gain would be still more striking. 

Amount and Character of Bedding Affects Value of Manure. — Straw 
is a by-product on most farms, and is best utilized as bedding for animals. 
In this way the plant-food constituents are not only all returned to the 
soil from whence they originally came, but the straw becomes an absorb- 
ent and prevents the loss of the liquids in the manure. Straw utilized 
in this way is probably more valuable than it would be if applied directly 



Manurial Constituents Contained in One Ton of Various Farm Products. 




Manurial Constituents. 


Farm Product. 


Nitrogen, 
pounds. 


Phosphoric 
Acid, 

pounds. 


Potash, 
pounds. 


Timothy hay 


19.2 

39.4 

53.2 

49.6 

17.2 

8.4 

8.6 

10.0 

13.0 

34.6 

32.4 

36 . 2 

29.6 

39.6 

51.2 

108.6 

142.8 

7.0 

10.2 

90.6 

53.2 


7.2 

8.0 

10.8 

13.2 

7.2 

2.4 

2.6 

5.8 

4.4 

19.2 

16.2 

15.4 

12.2 

15.4 

58.4 

37.6 

61.8 

3.2 

3.4 

23.0 

37.2 


25.2 


Clover hay 


35.0 


Alfalfa hay 


49.2 


Cowpea hay 


47.2 


Corn fodder, field cured 


21.4 


Corn silage 


6.6 


Wheat straw 


14.8 


Rye straw 


15.8 


< hit st raw 


24.4 


Wheat 


7.0 


Rye 


10.4 


Oats 


11.4 


Corn 


7.2 


Barley 


9.0 


\\ heat bran 


31.4 


Linseed meal 


26.2 


Cottonseed meal 


36.4 




11.4 


Milk 


3.0 


Cheese 


5 . 


Live cattle 


3.4 



as such to the soil. In the manure it is intermingled with the solid and 
liquid excrement, and inoculated with the bacteria in the voidings of 
animals, which facilitates its decomposition in the soil. Straw contains 
less plant food than an equal weight of dry matter in manure. An 
abundance of straw, therefore, used as bedding tends to dilute the ma- 
nure and slightly reduce its value per ton. This, however, is not a Logical 
objection to its use on the farm, although it might become so on the 
part of the farmer who is purchasing barnyard manure from outside sources, 
providing, of course, that no distinction in price is made in accordance 
with the concentration or dilution of the manure. 

Some fanners use a great abundance of straw for bedding their ani- 
mals. It is not, however, deemed good practice to use more than is suf- 
ficient to keep the animals clean and absorb and retain all of the liquids. 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 83 

A superabundance of bedding gives rise to a bulky, strawy manure that 
must be used in large quantities in order to be effective, and frequently 
results at the outset in denitrifi cation and unsatisfactory results. 




Modekn Convenience for Conveying Manure from Stalls to Manure Spreader. 1 

In a general way, it is estimated that the amount of bedding used 
for animals should equal approximately one-third of the dry matter con- 



Absorbent Capacity of 100 Pounds of Different Materials 


when Air Dry 


Nature of Absorbent. 


Liquid Absorbed, 
pounds. 


Wheat straw 


220 


Oat straw 


285 


Rye straw 


300 


Sawdust 


350 


Partly decomposed oak leaves 


160 


Leaf rakings 


400 


Peat 


500 


Peat moss 


1,300 





1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



si 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



sumed. This, however, will vary greatly, depending on the absorbent 
power of the bedding used and the character of the feed the animals 
receive. It will also depend on whether or not the absorbent material 
is thoroughly dry when used. When bedded with ordinary oat and wheal 
straw, it is estimated generally that cows should each have about 9 
pounds of bedding, horses Go pounds and sheep f pound. The table on 
preceding page shows the approximate absorbent capacity of various 
materials used as bedding. 

The figures in the table are only approximate, and will vary con- 
siderably under different conditions. They are supposed to represent 
the amount of liquid that will be held by 100 pounds of the substances 
mentioned, after twenty-four hours of contact. 

Aside from the absorbent power of bedding, its composition is also 
of some importance, and the following table gives the average fertilizer 
constituents in 2000 pounds of different' kinds of straw. 



Fertilizer Constituents in 2000 Pounds of Various Kinds of Dry Straw. 




Nil rogen, 
per cent. 


Phosphoric Acid, 
per cent. 


Potash, 
per ' 


Wheat 

Wheat chaff 


11.8 
15.8 
12.4 

9.2 
26.2 
20.2 

9.8 


2.4 
14.0 
4.0 
5.6 
6.0 
5.4 
1.4 


10.2 

8.4 * 


Oats 


IMS 


Rye 


15.8 


Barlev 


41.8 


Barlev chaff 

Buckwheat hulls . 


19.8 

10.4 







Methods of Storing and Handling. — The value of manure is also 
determined by the manner in which it is stored, the length of time it 
remains in storage and its manipulation in the storage heap. Manure 
is a very bulky material of a comparatively low money value per ton. 
Its economical use, therefore, demands thai the consequent labor be 
reduced to the minimum, especially in those regions where labor is high- 
priced. Where manure is to be protected from the elements, it calls for 
comparatively inexpensive structures for the purpose. 

When different kinds of animals are kept, it is advisable to place .-ill 
the manure together so thai the moist, cold cow and pig manure may 
become thoroughly mixed with the dry, hot horse and slice]) dung. In 
this way each class of manure benefits the other. Where the manure 
is deposited in n barnyard in which the animals run, the swine are fre- 
quently allowed to have five access 1<> the manure pile, from which they 
often get considerable feed which would otherwise be wasted. Such 
U'i'il consists of the undigested concentrates led to the horses and cuttle. 
Swine thoroughly mix the different kinds of manure, and when it is thor- 
oughly compacted by the tramping of the animals, fermentation is reduced 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 85 

to the minimum. If it is protected from rains and sufficient absorbent 
material has been used in the bedding, loss is comparatively small. 

When horse manure is placed by itself, it ferments very rapidly and 
soon loses its nitrogen. Such fermentation can be materially reduced by 
compacting the manure pile thoroughly and applying sufficient water to 
keep it constantly wet. This same rapid decomposition and loss of nitro- 
gen will take place in case of mixed manures if they are neither compacted 
n >r wot, although loss will not be so rapid. 

The use of covered barnyards for protecting manure has in recent 
years met with much favor in some portions of the country. 

Losses of Manure. — A practice too common in many sections is to 





^ 




■■■^^^^i^HBHH^^^^H . ■■■■■ :l 
Piles of Manure Stored Under Eaves of Barn, Showing 
How Loss Takes Place. 1 



throw the manure out of stable doors and windows, and allow it to remain 
for a considerable length of time beneath the eaves of the barns. This 
not only exposes it to direct rainfall, but also subjects it to additional 
rain collected by the roof of the building. Under these conditions the 
leaching of the manure and the consequent loss is very great. Where 
manure piles remain long under these conditions, it is sometimes doubtful 
whether the depleted manure is worth hauling to the field. Certainly 
this is a practice to be condemned. Both the mineral constituents and 
organic matter are carried off in the leachings. 

Experimental Results. — Experiments at the Cornell Experiment 
Station where manure remained exposed during six summer months 
showed a percentage loss for horse manure as follows: gross weight 57 

1 Courtesy of Doubleday, Pnge & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From " Soils," by Fletcher. 



86 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

per cent, nitrogen GO per cent, phosphoric acid 47 per cent, potash 76 
per cent; for cow manure the loss was: gross weight 49 per cent, nitro- 
gen 41 per cent, phosphoric acid 19 per cent, potash 8 per cent. The 
rainfall during this period was 28 inches. This shows an average loss 
for the two classes of manure of more than one-half in both weight and 
actual plant-food constituents. 

By similar observations at the Kansas Station, it was found that 
the waste in six months amounted to fully one-half of the gross weight 
of the manure and nearly 40 per cent of its nitrogen. 

The New Jersey Experiment Station found that cow dung exposed 
to the weather for 109 days lost 37.6 per cent of its nitrogen, 52 per cent 
of its phosphoric acid and 47 per cent of its potash. Mixed dung and 
urine lost during the same period of time 51 per cent of its nitrogen, 51 
per cent of phosphoric acid and 61 per cent of potash. Numerous other 
experiments along the same line could be cited, giving essentially the same 
results. These experiments leave no doubt as to the large loss incurred 
in negligent methods in the management of manure, and emphasize the 
importance of better methods of storing manure. 

The estimated annual value of the manure from all animals in the 
United States as given in the table in the first part of this chapter is 
$2,485,367,711. There is no means of ascertaining what proportion of 
all manure is deposited where it can be collected. For present purposes 
we will assume that one-half of it is available for return to the land. 
Assuming that one-third of this is lost because of faulty methods of stor- 
age and handling, the loss from this source would be valued at $414,- 
227,952. The enormous loss sustained by American farmers through 
negligence in the care, management and use of manure emphasizes the 
importance of the subject and the great need of adopting economic methods 
in its utilization. 

How to Prevent Loss. — Some of the methods of preventing loss 
have already been suggested. Under most conditions this is best accom- 
plished by hauling the manure soon after its production directly to the 
field. This has become a common practice in many localities. It is 
economical from a number of viewpoints. It saves labor, obviating the 
extra handling incurred when the manure is first dumped in the yard 
and afterwards loaded on wagons to be taken to the field. It keeps 
the premises about the barns and yards clean at all times; reduces offen- 
sive odors due to decomposition of manure; and reduces in the summer 
time breeding places for flies. The most important saving, however, is 
in the actual value of the manure, which in this way has sustained no loss 
due to decomposition and leaching. 

Absorbents vs. Cisterns. — Losses frequently occur both in the yard 
and stable, due to a direct and immediate loss of the liquid portions of 
the manure. This is overcome either by the use of an ample supply of 
absorbent in the way of bedding or by collecting the liquid manure in a 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 87 

cistern. The cistern method of saving liquid manure is of doubtful econ- 
omy in this country. The expense of cisterns and the trouble of hauling 
and distributing, together with the care which must be exercised to pre- 
vent loss of nitrogen by fermentation of the liquid when it stands long, 
are all valid objections to such provisions. It is possible under intensive 
farming and with cheap labor that liquid manure might be thus saved 
and utilized for crops that respond to nitrogenous fertilizers. Best results 
with manure demand that the liquid and solid portions be applied together. 
It is the consensus of opinion that the best general practice is to save the 
liquid by the use of absorbents. 

Since nitrogen frequently escapes as ammonia, certain absorbents 
for gases, such as gypsum, kainite, acid phosphate and ordinary dust, 
have been recommended. As direct absorbents, however, these are of 
doubtful value, although some of them are effective, first, in reducing the 
fermentation, and second, in actually reinforcing the manure by the addi- 
tion of plant-food constituents. 

Sterilization. — Preservatives have also been suggested in the nature 
of substances that will prevent fermentation and thus reduce losses. 
Bisulphide of carbon, caustic lime, sulphuric acid and a number of other 
substances have been tested for this purpose. However, anything that 
will prohibit fermentation destroys the bacteria of the manure, and such 
destruction may more than offset the saving in plant-food constituents. 
Furthermore, most of these materials are rather costly, and the benefits 
derived are not equal to the expense incurred. 

Reinforcing Manures. — A number of substances have been used to 
reinforce manure. The one most beneficial and economical is either acid 
phosphate or rock phosphate. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that 
phosphorus is the element most frequently needed in the soils, and that 
manure is inadequately supplied with it. The following table, showing 
results obtained at the Ohio Experiment Station by reinforcing manure 
with different substances, gives direct evidence as to the relative merits 
of such substances: 



Value of Manure, Average 15 Years. — Rotation: Corn, Wheat, Clover (3 Years). 



Treatment. 


Nothing. 


Gypsum. 


Kainite. 


Floats. 


Acid 
Phosphate. 


Return per ton: 

Yard manure 

Stall manure 


$2.55 
3.31 


$3.04 
3.56 


$2 . 93 
3.97 


$3.54 
4.49 


$4.10 

4.82 



It is evident from the above table that all the materials used have 
more or less increased the value of the manure, as determined by the 
value of increase in crops obtained from each ton when applied once in a 
three years' rotation of corn, wheat and clover. The value per ton of 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



manure is based on the average farm price of the crops produced. It La 
also evidenl from the table thai stall manure gave in every instance a 
larger return per ton than did yard manure, and thai floats and acid phos- 
phate proved by all odds the besl reinforcing materials. While acid 
phosphate reinforcement gave the largesl return per ton of manure, the 
floats proved aboul equally profitable from the investment standpoint. 

In localities where phosphorus is the dominanl soil requirement, the 
reinforcement of manure with acid phosphate at the rate of about forty 
pounds to each ton of manure is a, most excellent practice. The manner 
of applying the phosphate may be determined by conditions. It will 
frequently be found convenient to apply this material to the manure in 




Spreading Manuee fbom Wagon, Old Way. 1 

the stalls or stables each day at the rate of about one pound for each 
fully grown cow, horse or steer, and in lesser amounts for the smaller 
animals. There is probably no place in which the raw rock phosphate 
is likely to give better results than when used in this way as a reinforce- 
ment to manure. 

Economical Use of Manure. — The most economical use of manure 
involves a number of factors. It is the opinion of both chemists and 
fanners that manure and mine should be applied to the soil in its fresh- 
est possible condition. If this is true, manure should be hauled from the 
stable or barnyard to the field as soon as it is made. As previously indi- 
cated, this method reduces to the minimum the COSl of handling and has 
several additional advantages. Well-rotted manure may be more quickly 

available to plants, less bulky and easier to distribute, and weight for 
1 Courtesy of Doubleday, P :■ &Co.,Qe \. Y. From " Soils," by Fletcher, 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 89 

weight may give as much or larger returns than fresh manure. There 
are, however, only a few conditions under which its use can be superior 
to that of using fresh material. The rotted manure may be used for 
intensive crops when availability is important, and especially on land 
where weeds, entailing hand work, become a serious problem. In fresh 
manure the weed-seeds that may have been in the feeds are likely to be 
largely viable, and give rise to trouble in the field. Thorough fermenta- 
tion generally destroys the viability of weed-seeds in manure. 

To Which Crops Should Manure be Applied? — Next to time of haul- 
ing may be considered the crops to which manure can be most advan- 
tageously applied. Direct applications of fresh manure are thought to 
be injurious to the quality of tobacco, to sugar beets and to potatoes. 
It should, therefore, not be applied to these crops directly. It may be 
applied to the crop preceding, or decomposed manure may be used. As 
a rule, manure should be applied directly to the crop in the rotation 
having the longest growing season, or the greatest money value. For 
example, in a rotation of corn, oats, wheat and mixed grasses, corn not 
only has the longest growing season, but also the greatest food and cash 
value. It is, therefore, considered good practice to apply the manure 
directly to the corn. Since the benefits of manure are distributed over 
a number of years, the crops which follow will benefit by its residual 
effect. 

To What Soils Should Manure be Applied? — Character of soil may 
also determine where the manure should be applied. If mechanical con- 
dition is a prime consideration, fresh manure may be applied to heavy, 
clay soils and well-rotted manure to light, sandy soils. On the other 
hand, the sandy soils in a favorable season are more likely to utilize coarse 
manure to advantage than heavy soils. In such soils decomposition will 
proceed more rapidly, thus rendering available the plant-food constituents 
of the manure. On sandy soils manure should be applied only a short 
time before it is likely to be needed, in order to prevent the danger of loss 
by leaching. On heavy, clay soils the benefits from applying fresh manure 
are likely to be rather slight the first year, because of slow decomposition 
of the manure. This, however, is not serious, because in such soils the 
plant food as it becomes available is held by the soil with little or no 
loss. 

Climate Affects Decomposition. — Climate may also be a factor in- 
fluencing the use of fresh manure. In a warm, damp climate it matters 
little whether the manure is fresh or well rotted when applied. Under 
such conditions decomposition in the soil is sufficiently rapid to make 
fresh manure readily available. The character of season may also be a 
factor determining the relative merits of fresh and rotted manure. In 
a very dry season excessive applications of fresh manure show a tendency 
to burn out the soil, and this is more marked in light, sandy soils than in 
the heavy soils. Furthermore, heavy applications of strawy manure 



90 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



plowed under when the soil is dry will destroy the capillary connection 
between the upper and lower soils, thus preventing a rise of the subsoil 
water for the benefit of the newly planted crop. This occasionally results 
in a crop failure and the condemnation of the use of fresh manure. 

Eroded Soil Most in Need of Manure. — In a general way, any kind 
of manure should be applied to those portions of the farm the soil of which 
is most in need of manure. Marked differences in the organic content 
of the soil in different parts of fields are often manifest. This most fre- 
quently is the result of slight erosion on the sloping portions. It is a good 
practice to apply manure to these portions in an effort to restore them 
to their original fertility. Such areas without special attention tend to 
deteriorate rapidly. The addition of manure improves the physical con- 
dition of the soil, increases its absorptive power for rain and lessens 
erosion. In this way, not only is the soil benefited, but deterioration 
through erosion is checked. 

Rate of Application. — The rate of applying manure is also important 
and will determine the returns per ton of manure. Farmers in general 
do not have sufficient manure to apply in large quantities to all of their 
land. This gives rise to the question as to whether or not heavy appli- 
cations shall be used on restricted areas and for certain crops, or whether 
the manure shall be spread thinly and made to reach as far as possible. 
Some German writers speak of 18 tons per acre as abundant, 14 tons as 



Value of Manure. Average 30 Years. 
Rotation: Corn,* Oats, Wheat,* Clover, Timothy (Four Years). 



Treatment, One Rotation. 



Nothing 

Manure 12 tons 

Manure 1 * "> tuns 

Manure 20 tons 

Manure 12 tons and lime 2 tons 



Value of 
Four Crops. 



$60.02 
88.91 
89.62 
92.68 
92.22 



Return per Ton 

of Manure. 



$2.41 
1.85 
1.63 

2.68 



Return per Ton 
over 12 per Acre. 



$0.18 
.33 



moderate and 8 tons as light applications. They recommend 10 tons 
per acre for roots, 20 tons per acre for potatoes. In England, at the 
Rothampsted Experiment Station, 14 tons yearly for grain was considered 
heavy. In New Jersey 20 tons per acre for truck is not infrequently 
used. Such applications are, however, unnecessarily large for general 
farm crops and for the average farm. 

At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the average results for a 
period of thirty years in a four-crop rotation when manure was used at 
the rate of 12, 16 and 20 tons per acre during the rotation, show that the 
largest return per ton of manure was secured with the lightest application. 



* Manure applied to these crops only. 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 91 

The manure in this case was applied twice in the rotation; 6, 8 and 10 
tons per acre to the corn, the same amounts to the wheat and none to either 
the oats or grass. 

The returns per ton of manure are based on a valuation of crops 
as follows: Corn 50 cents a bushel, oats 32 cents a bushel, wheat 80 cents 
a bushel, hay $10 a ton, and oat straw, wheat straw and corn stover $2.50 
per ton. 

A similar experiment at the Ohio Experiment Station covering a 
period of eighteen years has also shown the largest return per ton of 
manure in case of the smaller applications. The results are given in the 
following table: 



Value op Manure. Average 18 Years. 
Rotation: Corn,* Oats, Wheat,* Clover, Timothy (Five-year Rotation). 



Treatment, One Rotation. 


Return per Ton 
of Manure. 


Return per Ton 
over 8 per Acre. 


Manure 8 tons 

Manure 16 tons 


$3 . 17 
2.41 


$1^75 







Rotation : 


Potatoes, 


Wheat, f Clover (Three Years). 




Treatment, One Rotation. 


Return per Ton 
of Manure. 


Return per Ton 
over 8 per Acre. 


Manure 4 tons 


$3.47 
2.58 
2.15 
3.30 




Manure 8 tons 

Manure 16 tons 


$1.69 
1.72 


Manure 8 tons 





Methods of Applying Manure. — A uniform rate and even distribution 
of manure are essential. This can be most economically effected by the 
use of a manure spreader. It does the work better than it can be done 
with a fork, and at a great saving of labor. While a manure spreader is 
rather an expensive implement, it will be a paying investment on any 
farm where 60 tons or more of manure are to be applied annually. It is 
a common practice in most parts of the country to apply manure to a 
grass sod and plow it under. In many cases manure is also applied to 
corn land and land that has been in small grain, to be followed by other 
or similar crops. While it is the consensus of opinion that the manure 
applied in this way will give best results, there is some question as to 
whether or not more of it should not be applied in the form of a top 
dressing. 

Top Dressing vs. Plowing Under. — At the Maryland Experiment 

* Manure applied to these crops only. 

t Manure applied to wheat, except in second 8 tons application, which went on potatoes. 




1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company. Chicago. 
(92) 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 93 

Station both fresh and rotted manure were applied before and after 
plowing. For fresh manure the average of two crops of corn showed 
a gain of 10.9 bushels per acre in favor of applying after plowing. For the 
wheat which followed the corn the gain was two bushels per acre. Where 
rotted manure was compared in the same way there was practically no 
difference in the yield of corn, and about one bushel gain for wheat in 
favor of applying after plowing. In this experiment the fresh manure 
under both conditions and for both crops gave yields considerably above 
that produced by the rotted manure. 

Another experiment in which the manure was plowed under in the 
spring as compared with plowing under in the fall gave results with corn 
and wheat favorable to plowing under in the spring. This is in harmony 
with the preceding experiment, and suggests that manure applied to the 
surface, and allowed to remain for some time in that position, benefits 
the soil and results in a better growth of crops than when it is plowed 
under immediately. The subject is one worthy of further consideration 
and experimentation. It is not an uncommon opinion, however, among 
practical farmers that top dressing with manure is more beneficial than 
plowing it under, and it is quite a common practice to top dress grass 
lands and wheat with manure. 

In the South, where manure is very scarce, it is frequently applied 
in the hill or furrow at planting time. This entails a good deal of hand 
labor, but it is probably justifiable where labor is as cheap as it is there. 
The manner of applying small applications concentrates the manure in 
the vicinity of the plants and stimulates growth during the early portions 
of the season. 

The Parking System. — The cheapest possible way of getting manure 
on the land is by pasturing the animals, or allowing them to gather their 
own feed. This, of course, is an old and universal practice in case of 
pastures, and is becoming more popular as indicated by the practice of 
hogging off corn, and other annual crops. This is spoken of as the park- 
ing system. It has a disadvantage that in certain classes of animals the 
manure is not uniformly distributed. It is more applicable for sheep and 
swine than it is for the larger animals. 

Distribution of Benefits. — The benefits of manure are distributed 
over a number of years. This often gives rise to difficulty in case of the 
tenant farmer who rents a farm for only one year and without assur- 
ance that he will remain for more than that length of time. He hesi- 
tates to haul and apply the manure, knowing that his successor will receive 
a considerable part of its benefits. Under average conditions it is esti- 
mated that the first crop after manure is applied will receive about 40 
per cent of its benefits; the second crop 30 per cent; the third crop 20 
per cent; and the fourth one the remaining 10 per cent. This distribution 
of the benefits of manure is used in cost accounting in farm crops. The 
accuracy of the distribution is doubtless crude, and would vary greatly 



94 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

for different crops and different soils, and would also be influenced by the 
character of the manure and its rate of application. 

GREEN MANURES 

Green manuring consists of plowing under green crops for the benefit 
of the soil. The practice results in increasing the organic matter in the 
soil. If legumes are used for this purpose the nitrogen content of the 
soil may also be increased. Preference should be given to legumes for 
this reason. The choice of a crop for green manuring purposes will depend 
on a number of factors. Other things equal, deep-rooted crops are prefer- 
able to those having shallow root systems. Plants with deep roots gather 
some mineral constituents from the subsoil and upon the decay of the 
plants leave them in the surface soil in an organic form. Deep-rooted 
plants are also beneficial because they improve the physical condition of 
the subsoil. In general, crops that will furnish the largest amount of 
humus and nitrogen-bearing material for the soil should be selected. 

When is Green Manuring Advisable? — The practice of plowing 
under crops for the benefit of the soil is not justified in systems of live- 
stock farming where the crops can be profitably fed and the manure 
returned to the soil. There are many localities, however, where the farm- 
ing systems are such that but little manure is available to supply the 
needs of the soil. Under such conditions green manuring crops are often 
resorted to with profit. They arc especially to be recommended in ease 
of sand..' soils low in organic matter, and for heavy soils in poor physical 
condition. In addition to serving the purposes above mentioned, green 
manuring crops, if properly selected, occupy the soil at seasons when it 
would otherwise be bare of vegetation and subject to erosion. They also 
prevent the loss of nitrogen by leaching. This is later made available for 
other crops as the green manures decompose in the soil. 

Green manuring is most applicable on fruit and truck farms. It is 
quite extensively practiced in orchards during the early life of the trees. 
It is also economical in the trucking regions where the winters are mild. 

Objections to Green Manuring. — The objections to green manuring 
lie chiefly in the fact thai green manure crops are grown and plowed 
under for the benefit of the soil and no direct immediate return is secured. 
The green manuring crops generally take the place of money crops. 
When it is possible to grow Legumes and feed them to livestock with profit, 
the stubble and roots of such crops, together with the manure which 
they will afford, make possible nearly as rapid improvement of the soil 
as is the east 1 when the whole crop is plowed under. Whether or not a 
green manuring crop should be \'c<\ or plowed under must be determined 
by the cost of harvesting and feeding, together with the cost of returning 
the manure, as compared with the returns secured iii animals or animal 
products in feeding it, 



BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 95 

Principal Green Manuring Crops. — The principal crops grown in 
the United States for green manuring purposes are red clover, alfalfa, 
alsike clover, crimson clover, cowpeas, Canada peas, soy beans, vetch, 
velvet bean, Japan clover, sweet clover and bur clover. In addition to 
these, beggar weed, peanuts and velvet bean are also used in the South. 
These are all legumes, and are decidedly preferable to non-legumes under 
most conditions where green manures can be used. In the North, where 
the winters are severe, rye and occasionally wheat are used for this pur- 
pose. Buckwheat, which is a summer annual, is also sometimes used. 



^jjljgk 


i&tffe 


HP '%-: 






n 


V— 18 






*&*M^ ' it 


t \ . , ft , ■»-; 








l Y*rF~Sw 




.;% &:. ;« 


■ . '. . 'I'- "V • 



Rye Turned Under for Soil Improvement. 

When heavy green manuring crops are turned under allow two weeks or more to 
elapse before planting succeeding crop. 

The characteristics and the requirements for these crops will be dis- 
cussed in Part II of this work. 

On poor soils lime and the mineral fertilizers may be used with profit 
in the production of a green manure crop. This will stimulate the crop 
to a greater growth, and when it decays in the soil the elements applied 
will again become available for the crop that is to follow. 

The composition of the legumes used for green manuring varies con- 
siderably, depending upon local conditions, character of soil and the stage 
of maturity when plowed under. The table on next page shows the com- 
position as determined by the average of a number of analyses, and gives 
the fertilizing constituents in pounds per ton of dry matter for both tops 
and roots in the crops indicated. 

In connection with the analyses as shown in this table, it should be 
borne in mind that all of the mineral constituents come from the soil, 
and that it is not possible to increase these by the growing of green manur- 



96 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



ing crops. The only possible benefit in this respect is the more available 
form that may result as the green manuring crops decompose. The only 
real additions to the soil will be in the form of organic matter and nitrogen. 
It is, therefore, essential to select those crops that will give the largest 
increase in those two constituents. 

Fertilizing Materials in 2000 Pounds of Dry Substance. 



Plant and Part. 



Alfalfa, tops 

Alfalfa, roots 

Cowpeas, tops 

Cowpeas, roots 

Crimson clover, tops. 
Crimson clover, roots 

Common vetch, tops. 
Common vetch, roots 

Red clover, tops 

Red clover, roots 

Soy bean, tops 

Soy bean, roots 

Velvet bean 



Nitrogen, 

per ri-nl . 



46. 
41. 

39.2 
23 . 6 

42.6 
30. 

59.9 
43.8 

47. 
54.8 

43.6 
21. 

50.2 



Phosphoi 
per cent. 



Potash, 
pt-r cent. 



H» 8 
8.6 

10.2 

11. 

12.4 
9 I 

14.2 
15.8 

11.6 
16.8 

12.5 

6.8 

10.6 



30.4 
9.6 

38.6 
23.2 

27. 
20.4 

53.7 

23.(3 

12.8 
16. I 

33.6 
13.4 

76.8 



The cultivated crops, such as corn, potatoes, tobacco, cotton and 
some of the heavier truck crops, generally follow a green manuring crop 
to better advantage than crops that are broadcasted or drilled and do 
not require cultivation. It is good practice to plow under green manur- 
ing crops two weeks or more in advance of the time of seeding the crop 
which is to follow. Lime applied to the surface before the crop is turned 
under will tend to hasten decomposition and neutralize acids which are 
generally formed. The more succulent the crop when turned under, the 
greater the tendency to acid formation. 



REFERENCES 
" Fertilizers and Manures." Hall. 
"Farm Manures." Thorne. 
"Barnyard Manure, Value and Use." Edward Minus, Dept. of Agriculture, Cornell 

University, Ithaca, N. Y. 
Michigan Expt. Station Circular 25. "Composition and Value of Farm Manure." 
Michigan Expt. Station Circular 26. " Losses and Preservation of Barnyard Manure." 
Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 246. "Barnyard Manure." 
Purdue Fxpt. Station Bulletin 49. "Farm Manur 



CHAPTER 6 

Lime and Other Soil Amendments 

Soils Need Lime. — Lime is an essential element of plant food. Many 
plants are injured by an acid condition of the soil. Soil acidity is most 
cheaply corrected by one of the several forms of lime. The beneficial 
effects of liming have been demonstrated by the agricultural experiment 
stations in a dozen or more of the states. Observations by farmers in all 
of the Eastern and Southern States, and in the Central States as far west 
as the Missouri River, show that on many of the farms soils are sour. 
This sourness of the soil is due to a deficiency of lime, and often occurs 
in soils originally rich in lime. 

Lime Content of Soils. — Soils vary greatly in their original lime 
content. Some have very little lime to begin with. Others, such as the 
limestone soils, are formed from limestone rocks, some of which were 
originally more than 90 per cent carbonate of lime. The lime content of 
soils is determined by treating them with strong mineral acids. This 
removes all of the lime from the soil, and the content is then determined 
chemically. The following table shows the lime content of a number of 
typical soils in different parts of the United States: 

Lime Content (CaC0 3 ) per Acre 7 Inches of Soil in Some Typical Soils 
of the United States. 



Soil Type. 


State. 


Production. 


Lime Content, 
pounds. 


Leonardtown loam 

Orangeburg sandy loam 

Orangeburg fine sandv loam 

Cecil clay 


Maryland 

Alabama 

Texas 

North Carolina . . . 

Maryland 

Kansas 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Wisconsin 


Very low 

Low 


2,500 
3,500 
4,650 


<( 


5,000 


Norfolk loam . . 


it 


8,575 


Oswego silt loam . . 


It 


14,275 


Hagerstown loam 


Medium 

tt 

High 


14,275 


Miami sand 


34,650 


Miami silt loam 


32,500 


Porters black clay . 


59,250 




Minnesota 

Connecticut 

California 

Alabama 


a 


66,750 


Podunk fine sandy loam . . 


a 


83,575 


Fresno fine sandy loam . . 


it 


125,250 


Huston clay 


it 


1,000,750 









How Soils Lose Lime. — The greatest loss of lime from the soil is 
due to leaching. Lime is slowly soluble in the soil solution, and is carried 
downward by the gravitational movement of the soil water. The rate 
of loss of lime in this way depends both upon the rate of solubility and 

(97) 



08 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

the rate of underground drainage. The fact that drainage waters and 
well waters in all regions where lime is abundant in the soil are highly 
charged with it is an indication of the readiness with which lime is lost 
from the soil in this way. 

In limestone soil regions the water generally finds its way into under- 
ground drainage channels, and few surface streams occur. Very little 
of it passes over the surface. This explains why limestone soils become 
deficient in lime. The presence of an abundance of humus in the soil may 
retain lime in the form of humates, and reduce its loss. 

Lime is also removed in farm crops. The amount of removal in this 
way depends on the yield and character of crops removed, together with 
the amount that is returned in manures and other by-products. Legumes 
contain much more lime than non-legumes, and, therefore, cause a more 
rapid reduction in the lime of the soil. 

Lime Requirements of Soils. — The character of vegetation is a good 
index to the lime requirement of soils. When red clover fails or when 
alsike clover does better than red clover, it indicates a sour soil. The 
presence of redtop, plantain and sorrel also indicates a sour soil. In 
traveling over the country from the Missouri River to the Atlantic sea- 
coast, the acidity of the soil is indicated by the presence of these weeds. 

Farmers who are troubled with failure of clover and by the encroach- 
ment of the above-mentioned weeds, may feel reasonably sure that their 
soils need lime. If these signs leave doubt in the mind of the farmer, he 
can further test his soil by the use of neutral litmus paper. Five cents 
worth of neutral litmus paper purchased at the drug store will enable him 
to make tests of many samples of soil. This is conveniently done by 
collecting small samples of soil to the usual depth of plowing at a number 
of points in the field in question. The soils should be made thoroughly 
wet, preferably with rain water or water that is not charged with lime. 
A strip of the litmus paper brought in contact with the soil and allowed 
to remain for fifteen or thirty minutes will turn red if the soil is sour. 
The intensity of the change of color will in a measure indicate the degree 
of sourness. 

Upon request, most of the state experiment stations will test repre- 
sentative samples of soil and advise concerning their lime requirements. 
The laboratory method determines approximately the amount of lime 
required to neutralize the soil to the usual depth of plowing. 

Crops Require Lime. — Some crops are more tolerant of soil acidity 
than others. Of our staple farm crops, common red clover is about the 
least tolerant of such a condition. The staple crops that draw most 
heavily on the soil for a supply of lime are those first affected by soil 
acidity. They are also the least tolerant of soil acidity, and are usually 
most responsive to applications of lime. The clovers contain much more 
lime and magnesia than the cereals and grasses. The following fable 
gives the average lime and magnesia content as carbonates in a ton of 



LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 99 



the more general farm crops. Notice the large amounts in clover and 
alfalfa. Common red clover contains more than alsike clover. It is less 
tolerant of soil acidity than the latter. 

Average Lime and Magnesia (Equivalent to CaC0 3 and MgC0 3 ) in 2000 lbs. 

of the Following Crops. 
(Calculated from von Wolff's Tables on the Basis of 15 per cent Moisture.) 



Produce. 



Timothy hay 

Wheat (grain and straw) 

Corn (grain, cobs and stover) 

( )ats (grain and straw) 

Clover hay (alsike) 

Clover hay (red) 

Alfalfa hay 



Pounds of Carbonates as 



Calcium 
CaCOj. 



6.00 
6.50 
8.6S 
10.40 
49.00 
73.00 
91.00 



Magnesium 
MgCOs. 



2.77 

6.23 

8.66 

9.00 

21.47" 

27.01 

13.10 



Total. 



8 .77 

12.73 
17.34 
19.40 
70.47 
100.01 
104.16 



Tolerance to Acidity. — Numerous tests at the Pennsylvania Experi- 
ment Station show that when the lime requirement of the soil is 1500 to 
1700 pounds of burnt or caustic lime per acre seven inches of soil, red 




The Growth of Red Clover on an Acid Soil as Affected by Lime. 1 
A sour soil is unfriendly to clover. Lime will overcome the difficulty. 

clover fails. This is equivalent to from 2700 to 3000 pounds of carbonate 
of lime or crushed limestone. A lime requirement of 500 to 1000 pounds 
per acre does not seriously interfere with the growth of red clover. In 
ordinary farm practice the acidity seldom becomes sufficiently marked to 
affect noticeably the cereals and grasses, although these may be indirectly 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station. 



100 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



affected by the failure of clover. On experimental plats where ammonium 
sulphate has been used, the acidity has become so marked that all of the 
crops in the rotation are directly affected. The degree of tolerance of 
these crops is in the following order: oats, wheat, corn and red clover; the 
last being the least tolerant of soil acidity. 

At the Rhode Island Experimenl Station, Wheeler has made extensive 
tests of the tolerance of plants to soil acidity, and the relative benefits of 
applying lime. The following table shows the plants falling into three 
classes: first, those benefited by lime; second, those but little benefited 
by lime; third, plants usually or frequently injured by lime. 



Lime as Affecting Growth of Plants 



Alfalfa 

Asparagus 

Balsam 

Barley 

Beets (all kinds) 

Beans 

Bush 

( rolaen Wax 

Horticultural Pole 

Red Valentine 
( !abbage 
( !antaloupe 
( lauliflower 
Celery 
< !herry 
Clover 

Red 

White 

Alsike 

Crimson 
Cucumber 
( Jurranl 
Dandelion 



Bent, Rhode Island 

( "arrot 

Chicory 



Plants Benefited by Liming. 

Eggplant 

Elm, American 

Emmer 

Gooseberry 

Hemp 

Kentucky Blucgrass 

Kohl-rabi 

Lentil 

Let tuce (all kinds) 

Linden, American 

Martynia 

Mignonette 

Nasturtium 

Oats 

Okra (Gumbo) 

Onion 

( tarange 

Pea 

Canada 

Common 

Sweet 
Pansy 

Parsnip 



Peanut 

Pepper 

Plum (Burbank-Japan) 

Pumpkin 

Quince 

Raspberry (Cuthbert) 

Rhubarb 

Salsify 

Salt-bush 

Sorghum 

Spinach 

Squash 

Summer 

Hubbard 
Sweet Alyssum 
Timothy 
Tobacco 
Turnip 

Flat 

Swedish 
rjpland Cress 
Wheat 



Plants but Little Benefited by Liming. 

Corn, Indian Rye 

Reel top Spurry 



Plants Usually or Frequently Injured by Liming. 



Apple* 
Azaleaf 

I '.can 

Velvet 

Castor 
Birch, American White 
Blackberry 
Ghestnutf 

( JottOD 



Cowpea* 

< Van berry 

Flax 

( rrape, Concord* 

Lupine 

Phlox ( Drummondi)' 

Peach ' 

Rear* 

Radish 



Raspberry 
( B lack-cap) 

Rhododendron f 

Sorrel 

Common 

Sheep 
Spruce, Norway 
Tomato* 
Zinnia* 



* Those under certain conditions arc benefited by liming. 
t These have qoI been tested at the Rhode Island Station. 



LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 101 



Crops benefited by lime were not only increased in size, but were 
ready for market earlier than where lime was omitted. Tobacco was 
improved in the character of its ash by the use of lime. 

Lime is most beneficial in promoting the growth of legumes. This 
results in building up the nitrogen supply and general fertility of the soil. 

Sources of Lime. — The principal source of lime is in the limestone 
rocks and deposits that occur in great abundance in many sections of the 
country. There are probably no states in which limestone formations 
do not occur, although there are sometimes considerable sections including 
a number of counties in which limestone deposits are not accessible. 

Deposits of marl occur in certain localities. They vary greatly in 
composition and lime 
content. Marl is gen- 





Beets Grown With and Without Lime. 1 



erally in good physical 
condition for applica- 
tion to the soil, and 
some of it contains 
phosphorus and pot- 
ash. 

Oyster shells that 
accumulate in large 
quantities in sea-coast 
localities where oyster 
farming is carried on 
forms another valua- 
ble source of lime. 
Wood-ashes are about 
one-third actual lime. 
Three tons of wood- 
ashes are, therefore, equal to one ton of pure burnt lime. Unleached ashes 
contain 5 to 7 per cent of potash, and 1 to 2 per cent of phosphoric acid, 
which materially increases their value for use on land. When ashes are 
leached, most of the potash is lost, but the lime content is somewhat 
increased. 

There are a number of forms of spent lime, which is a by-product of 
different manufacturing establishments that use lime. Among these 
may be mentioned dye-house lime, gas-house lime, lime from tanneries, 
waste lime from soda-ash works, and waste lime from beet-sugar factories. 
The value of these varies widely, and it is impossible to make a definite 
statement concerning their value. They can frequently be secured at no 
cost other than" the hauling. Whether or not they are worth hauling 
depends upon circumstances. Frequently, they contain much water, 
are in poor physical condition and will be more expensive in the long run 
than to purchase first-class lime in good mechanical condition. Their 

1 Courteay of International Agricultural Association, Caledonia, N. Y. 



L02 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

value can be determined only by examination by the chemist or by actual 
field test. 

Gypsum or land plaster is frequently used on land, and while it will 
supply calcium as a plant food, it has little or no effect in correcting soil 
acidity. 

The rock phosphates and Thomas slag, used as sources of phosphorus, 
contain considerable lime, and their liberal use may obviate the necessity 
for applying lime to the soil. 

Forms of Lime. — Lime (CaO) does not occur in nature. It is pre- 
pared by heating Limestone (CaCOs) in kilns; 100 pounds of pure lime- 
stone thus heated loses 44 pounds of gas known as carbon dioxide (COj), 
and results in 56 pounds of lime. This 56 pounds of lime may be slaked 
with water and will combine with enough water to make 74 pounds of 
hydrated lime. Therefore, 1120 pounds of pure lime equals 1480 pounds 
of pure hydrated lime, which equals 2000 pounds carbonate of lime or 
pure pulverized limestone. When lime and hydrated lime are exposed 
to the air they slowly combine with the carbon dioxide of the air until 
finally reverted to the original form of carbonate of lime. The only 
difference between the original lime rock and completely air-slaked lime 
is that of fineness of subdivision, the one being in the form of large rock 
masses and the other a very fine powder. It is this fine state of sub- 
division that makes air-slaked lime valuable to apply to the soil. If the raw- 
limestone could be made equally fine it w r ould be just as good as air-slaked 
lime for the same purpose. If used in generous amounts it need not be 
so fine as air-slaked lime, but in order to be prompt and effective, pulver- 
ized limestone should be so fine that 90 per cent will pass through a 100- 
mesh screen. Where abundant and cheap, larger amounts of coarser 
material may be used because of the considerable amounts of finely divided 
active material it carries. The coarse portion may become available in 
later years. Lime is generally sold in one of five forms: ground lime- 
stone, freshly burnt or lump lime, ground burnt lime, hydrated lime and 
air-slaked lime. Some deposits of lime are nearly pure carbonates of lime, 
while others contain much magnesia and are known as dolomite. The 
presence of magnesia slightly increases the neutralizing power of a given 
weight of lime. 

FUNCTIONS OF LIME 

Lime as Plant Food.— The absence of lime prevents a normal develop-; 
men! of plants. Lime is, therefore, essential as a plant food. Most 

soils contain sufficient lime to meet the food requirements of plants. 
Some soils, however, may contain so little, or it may be so unavailable, 

that plants that are hungry for lime may suffer from a lack of it. 

Chemical Action of Lime. — The chemical effect of lime on most 
soils is of minor importance. It varies somewhat with the form in which 
it is applied to the soil. Freshly burnt or caustic lime is the most active 



LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 103 

form. It may combine with certain soil elements liberating other elements 
such as potash, and making them available for plants. Lime in the pres- 
ence of soluble phosphates will readily combine with them, forming 
tricalcium phosphate. This will prevent the phosphates from uniting 
with iron and aluminum, which gives rise to compounds less available to 
plants than the lime phosphates. 

Physical Effect of Lime. — Clay soils are frequently improved in 
physical condition by the liberal application of lime. Freshly burnt lime 
is the most active form for this purpose. Lime causes a flocculation of 
the clay particles and increases the porosity of the soil. Lime, therefore, 
facilitates drainage, makes cultivation easier, causes an aeration of the 
soil and makes possible a deeper penetration by plant roots. On sandy 
soils burnt lime may tend to bind the particles together. This may or 
may not be desirable. When applied for its physical effect it is usually 
best to apply air-slaked lime or finely pulverized limestone to sandy soils, 
and to use freshly burnt lime on heavy, refractory soils well supplied with 
organic matter. 

Lime Affects Soil Bacteria. — Certain species of bacteria are instru- 
mental in the change of ammonia and inorganic forms of nitrogen to 
nitrates. This process is known as nitrification, and is promoted by the 
presence of lime in the soil. The process not only makes the nitrogen 
available, but gives rise to the development of carbon dioxide, which in turn 
acts upon inert plant food and makes it more readily available to plants. 

Lime is also beneficial to the several forms of micro-organisms that 
reside in the tubercles on the roots of all legumes. This may explain why 
legumes are generally more benefited by lime than non-legumes. 

Lime Corrects Soil Acidity. — In the vast majority of instances the 
chief function of lime is to correct soil acidity. Lime corrects acidity by 
combining with the acids formed and giving rise to neutral salts. It will 
seldom pay to apply lime to the soil for purposes other than this. The 
amount of lime to apply is, therefore, determined chiefly by the degree 
of acidity of the soil. In practice it is found advisable to apply more than 
actual lime requirements indicated by chemical methods. This is advis- 
able because in practice it is impossible to distribute lime thoroughly 
and uniformly and secure its thorough mixture with the soil. Because 
of this lack of uniformity in distribution some of the lime applied will be 
ineffective and portions of the soil will not be brought in contact with 
lime. It is not always necessary to make the soil neutral, since most 
crops, even the most sensitive crops, will grow fairly well in the presence 
of small amounts of acids. 

Sanitary Effect of Lime. — The decomposition of organic matter in 
the soil often gives rise to products that are injurious to plant growth. 
While these generally disappear in time, the presence of lime often corrects 
the difficulty at once. It is also believed that plant roots excrete injurious 
substances. Lime neutralizes these objectionable substances. 



lot SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Lime also affects plant disease's. It lessens the injury of club root, 
which is often serious in case of turnips, cabbages and other cruciferous 
plants. It is found to be effective in reducing soil rot of sweet potatoes 
and checking the root diseases of alfalfa. On the other hand, lime tends 
to favor the development of potato scab, providing the germ of this 
disease is already in the soil. In this case it encourages the disease and 
becomes a menace rather than an aid. For this reason, lime is seldom 
recommended for potatoes. If applied in a crop rotation which contains 
potatoes, it is advisable to apply it just after the potato crop rather than 
before. 

Injudicious Use of Lime. — The injudicious use of lime may prove a 
detriment. Lime is not a fertilizer. To depend on it alone will result in 
failure. In the failure to recognize these principles lies the truth of the 
old saving, "Lime and lime without manure makes both farm and farmer 
poorer." 

The excessive use of burnt lime may bring about the availability of 
more plant food than can be utilized by crops, and cause a rapid loss of 
it, in which case soil depletion is hastened. It is, therefore, good farm 
practice to use medium to small quantities at intervals of five or six years. 
Little is to be gained by applying more than is sufficient to meet the present 
needs of the soil from the standpoint of neutralizing its acidity. 

Rate of Application. — The amount of lime to apply varies with the 
kind of lime, the requirements of the soil and the frequency of its applica- 
tion. If a soil is a tenacious clay and physical improvement is desired, 
an application of two or three tons of burnt lime per acre may be profitable. 
Ordinarily, lime is applied to correct acidity and make the soil friendly 
to clover and other plants. The equivalent of one to one and one-half 
tons of burnt lime per acre applied once in each crop rotation is usually 
a maximum amount. In some instances 1000 pounds per acre will 
accomplish the desired result. The equivalent of 1000 pounds of burnt 
lime is between 1300 and 1350 pounds of slaked lime, or a little less than 
one ton of finely pulverized raw limestone. Unusually large applications 
have emphasized the wastefulness of such applications so far as the needs 
of the soil and crops are concerned, through periods of five to six years. 
Large applications may last much longer, but they are more wasteful of 
lime, and result in capital being invested without returns. 

Small applications are advised for sandy soils. On such soils the 
carbonate form is to be preferred. Wood-ashes, because of the form of 
lime and the content of potash, is advised for sandy soils. 

Time of Applying. Lime in any form may be applied at any time of 
the year. In general farm practice it is advisable to apply lime when men 
and teams are available for its hauling and distribution with the minimum 
interference with other farm work. There are some minor precautions, 
however, in this connection. It is never advisable to apply caustic lime 
in large amounts just prior to the planting of the crop. At least ten daj s 



LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 10,5 

or two weeks should intervene between time of application and planting 
of the seed. The caustic effect may injure the young plants. In the soil 
lime is converted to the carbonate form and the caustic properties soon 
disappear. 

Lime should usually pave the way for clover. It is well to apply 
lime a year or more before the seeding of clover. If this has not been done, 
it may be put on the land when the seed-bed is being made for the wheat, 
oats or other crop with which clover is to be seeded. The advantages of 
applying a year or two in advance of clover lie in the very thorough 
mixture of lime and soil resulting from the plowing and tilling of the soil. 

Frequency of Application.— The frequency with which lime should be 
applied depends upon the character of the soil, the rate of application, 
the length of the crop rotation and the character of the crops grown. 
It may also be affected by climatic conditions and soil drainage. With 
good drainage and heavy rainfall the losses of lime will be large, while 
under reverse conditions they will be comparatively small. In crop 
rotations five years or more in length, one application at an appropriate 
place in each rotation should be sufficient. For shorter rotations one 
application for each two rotations may meet the needs. On soils that are 
extremely acid and where lime is scarce and high-priced, it may be desir- 
able to make small applications at frequent intervals until the lime require- 
ment of the soil is fully met. Sandy soils call for light applications at 
rather short intervals. On clay soils larger amounts can be used and the 
intervals lengthened. 

Method of Applying. — Lime should be applied after the ground is 
plowed and thoroughly mixed with the soil by harrowing or disking. 
The more thoroughly it is mixed with the soil the better and quicker the 
results will be. It should never be plowed under, because its tendency 
is to work downward rather than upward in the soil. Apply lime with 
a spreader after the ground has been plowed. Do not drill lime in with 
seeds, nor mix it with commercial fertilizer, nor use it in place of fertilizer. 
Apply lime to meet the lime requirements of a soil, and when this has been 
done use manure and commercial fertilizers in the ways that have been 
found profitable for the crops which are to be grown, regardless of the 
fact that lime has been applied. 

Relative Values of Different Forms of Lime. — The neutralizing effect 
of the different forms of lime is given under the carriers of lime on a pre- 
ceding page. The question of relative money values, however, is a matter 
of arithmetic, and involves not only the first cost of unit weights of the 
different forms of lime, but includes freight rates, cost of hauling and 
the work of applying it to the land. In this connection the purity of the 
product must always be taken into account. Impurities entail the 
expense of freight and hauling of worthless materials, and increase the 
cost of the active portion of the lime. The cost of lime in any locality 
will depend largely on the presence or absence of limestone or some other 



IOC SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

form of lime, together with the actual cost of quarrying, crushing or 
burning, as the case may be. 

The following figures, as given by Mr. J. H. Barron in the Tribune 
Farmer, show the relative cost of equivalent amounts of three forms of 
lime applied to the land in southern New York. This will serve as a 
method for any region. 

1 ton burnt lime at railroad station $4.00 

Hauling 100 

Cost of applying 1 .50 

Total cost per acre $6.50 

The high cost of applying is on account of having to slake the burnt 
lime before it is applied, together with the difficulty in applying it in that 
form. 

2640 pounds hydrated lime (equivalent to 1 ton burnt lime), 

at $7.00 per ton $9 . 24 

Hauling, at $1.00 per ton 1 .32 

Applying, at 75 cents per ton 99 

Total cost per acre $11 55 

The increased cost per acre in using this form is due to the relatively 
high first cost of hydrated lime and to the additional expense of hauling 
650 pounds of water content in the hydrated lime. 

In case of ground limestone w r e have the following: 

3570 pounds ground limestone (equivalent to 1 ton burnt lime), 

nt S4.00 per ton $7 . 14 

Hauling, at $1.00 per ton 1.78 

Applying, at 75 cents per ton 1 . 33 

Total cost per acre $10 . 25 

The above costs are probably considerably above the average for 
most localities where lime is not too inaccessible. The relative cost of 
ground limestone as compared with the burnt lime is also rather high. 

It is good business to purchase that form which supplies the greatest 
amount of active lime for the amount of money involved, providing the 
mechanical condition is satisfactory. In this connection it should be 
borne in mind that no matter in what form lime is applied to the soil, it 
soon reverts to its original form of carbonate of lime. The advantages 
in using slaked burnt lime lie chiefly in the extreme fineness of subdivision 
and the possibilities of more thorough distribution in the soil. 

Mixing with Manure and Fertilizers.— ( !a ustic forms of lime should 
not be mixed with either manure or fertilizers. Such forms in the presence 
of nitrogenous materials cause a loss of nitrogen in the form of ammonia. 
In the presence 6f soluble phosphates they cause a reversion to insoluble 

forms. It is best, therefore, to apply lime in advance of applying fertil- 



LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 107 



izers, and mix it with the soil by disking or harrowing. In case of manure 
which is plowed under, the application of lime may follow that of manure, 
being applied preferably after plowing. 

The pulverized raw limestone may be applied with manure, or at 
the time of applying fertilizers, without injurious results. 

Experimental Results. — Experiments with lime at many experiment 
stations and on all kinds of soils show that it makes little difference what 
form is used, so long as it is applied in sufficient quantities to meet the 
lime requirements of the soil, and is thoroughly and uniformly mixed with 
the soil. At the Penn- 
sylvania Experiment 
Station finely crushed 
limestone in each of 
three field tests ex- 
tending over a num- 
ber of years has 
proven slightly better 
than equivalent 
amounts of burnt 
lime. Extensive pot 
experiments at the 
same experiment sta- 
tion have shown that 
finely pulverized lime- 
stone is equally as 
prompt and effective 
in correcting soil 

acidity and promoting the growth of clover as equivalent amounts of 
caustic lime. While these tests are favorable to pulverized limestone, 
they are not all sufficiently decisive to justify its use at a dispropor- 
tionate price. If two tons of ground limestone cost much more than 
one ton of burnt lime, one would ordinarily not be justified in using the 
former. 

Where lime must be shipped some distance, the more concentrated 
forms are usually the cheaper. 

Spreading Lime. — The practice most common in the Eastern States 
is to place small piles of burnt lump lime at uniform intervals over the 
field, the amount in each pile and the distance between piles determining 
the rate of application. If the lime is to be spread promptly, about one- 
half pail of water should be applied to each pile, and then covered lightly 
with earth. This facilitates slaking, and the lime will be ready for dis- 
tribution in a comparatively short time. In other instances the piles 
are allowed to remain without either wetting or covering with earth 
until weather conditions bring about complete slaking. Long periods of 

Courtesy of W. N. Lowry, Student 




The Old Way of Spreading Lime. 1 

After slaking, the piles are uniformly spread over 
the surface. 



K»s 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



rainy weather frequently prove disastrous by puddling the lime and causing 
it to get into bad physical condition. 

Another method is to place the burnt lump lime in large stacks at the 
end of the field, and allow them to remain for several months until air 
Blaked. From these stacks the lime is hauled either by wagon, manure 
spreader or lime spreader, and applied to the field. When the lime con- 
tains lumps the manure spreader gives best results in distribution. By 
screening, a lime spreader or fertilizer spreader with large capacity may be 
used with good results. Whatever method is used, an effort should be 
made to obtain uniform distribution at the desired rate :it the minimum 
cost of time and labor. When slaked lime is spread with the lime spreader, 




A Moi>kkn Lime Spkeadeu in Operation. 1 



;i canvas may be attached to the spreader which will reach to the ground, 
and by tacking a strip at the lower edge to cause it to drag on the ground, 
the disagreeable effect of the dust is largely overcome. Goggles for the 
eves and a wet sponge for the mouth may prevent some of the disagree- 
able effects to the operator. 

In the central states where pulverized raw limestone is extensively 
used, both manure spreaders and lime spreaders are found satisfactory 
in its distribution. One successful farmer finds that the work is mosi 
cheaply and effectively done by using a short-tongue distributor hitched 
close behind a wagon loaded with limestone. The limestone is shoveled 
into the distributor as the load is drawn across the field. On loose, plowed 
earth lour horses are required to pull the load. In this way there is no 
extra handling of the lime, and the distribution is completed as soon as 

the wagon is unloaded. Many others have had good results with the 
manure spreader. Several methods have been practiced with this machine. 



urteey of The Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minn. Prom "Field Management a ml Crop 
Rotations," liy Parker. 



LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 109 

Some apply the lime and manure together. When the limestone is to be 
applied at the rate of three tons per acre, 600 pounds on each load of 
manure in case of ten loads of manure to the acre, gives the desired amount. 

Another method is to put a layer of straw in the bottom of the manure 
spreader, set the spreader for its minimum rate of distribution, and load 
in the amount of lime that will give the desired rate of application. For 
distribution at the rate of three tons per acre, this will generally require 
not more than one ton. 

Slaking Lime. — Lime in large quantities may be satisfactorily slaked 
by applying about two and one-half pails of water to each barrel of lime 




A Lime Crushing Outfit Suitable for the Farmer. 1 



as it is unloaded in the field. Eventually the whole stack should be 
covered with soil. In a few days all of the lime will be thoroughly slaked, 
and in a fine, dry condition suitable for spreading. 

Crushing vs. Burning Lime. — The use of finely pulverized raw lime- 
stone has created a demand for machinery for crushing lime rock. There 
are now on the market quite a number of portable machines suitable 
for farm use. In some localities where limestone is easily accessible it 
can be quarried and finely pulverized with these machines at a cost of 
$1 to $1.50 per ton. This puts it within the reach of farmers at a mod- 
erate price. 

Lime is burnt in several ways. The simplest way on the farm is 
to make a stack of lime rock with alternating layers of wood or coal. 
This is built in a conical form with an intake for air at the bottom and 
an opening at the top for ventilation. The stack is covered with earth 
and the fire lighted. 

1 Courtesy of New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Bulletin 400. 



110 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Mote effective burning is secured by burning limestone in a kiln 
constructed of stone or masonry. In cither case the cost per ton of burn- 
ing varies with the cost of fuel, the price of labor and the accessibility of 









Details of Construction of a Farm Limekiln. 1 

A — Cross section, showing layers of rock and coal. B — Longitudinal section. 
showing side hill used as back wall. C — Ground plan, showing trench and grate. 
D — Completed kiln, walled in and plastered with mud. 

limestone. The minimum cost for burning, including quarrying, labor 
and fuel, will be about $1.75 per ton of burnt lime. In many cases it 
will cost much more. 

REFERENCES 

Alabama Expt. Station Bulletin 95. "Lime as a Fertilizer for Oats." 
Iowa Expt. Station Bulletin 151. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Iowa Soils." 

iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 135, Q.S, Dept. of Agriculture. 



LIME AND OTHER SOIL A M E N D M E N T S 111 

Iowa Expt. Station Bulletin 2. "Bacteriological Effects of Lime." 

New Jersey Expt. Station Bulletin 210. "Lime as a Fertilizer for Clover and Oats." 

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 279. "Lime as a Fertilizer." 

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 131. "Use of Lime on Land." 

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 49. "Methods of Applying Lime." 

Rhode Island Expo. Station Bulletin 58. "Lime with Phosphates on Grass." 

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 1G0. "Lime with Nitrogenous Fertilizers on Acid 

Soils." 
Tennessee Expt. Station Bulletin 96. "Effect of Lime on Crop Production." 
Tennessee Expt. Station Bulletin 109. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Tennessee Soils." 
Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin 187. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Virginia Soils." 
Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 230. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Wisconsin Soils." 
Pennsylvania State Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 261. "Sour Soils and Liming." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 101. "Lime Sulphur Wash." 
Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 435. "Burning Lime on the Farm." 



CHAPTER 7 

Soil Water, Its functions and Control 

Water is the most abundant substance in nature. It is necessary 
to all forms of life. An abundant supply of moisture in the soil at all 
seasons of the plant's growth is essential to a bountiful harvest. Sixty 
to ninety per cent of all green plants consist of water. About forty per 
cent of the dry matter is made from water which unites with carbon to 
form the structure of the plant. Water is the necessary vehicle which 



iZ3' m' izi' iiy* 11V ««»• IPs' tor »?' 5 ea' p e<- 




Map Showing Mean Annual Rainfall for all Parts oftjie United States. 1 

eanies plant food to the plant, and causes it to circulate from one por- 
tion of the plant to another. When there is a deficiency of water in the 
soil, plant growth is checked. If the deficiency becomes sufficiently 
marked, plant growth ceases entirely. 

Amount and Distribution of Rain. — All water comes from rains and 
melting .-nous. An acre inch of rain makes 113 tons of water. To 
supply the equivalent of one inch of rainfall by artificial means at 10 
cents per ton of water would cost $11.30 per acre. Ten inches of rain- 

1 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From "Soils," by Fletcher. 

( 1 1 2) 



SOIL WATER 113 



fall at the same rate would cost $113 per acre. From this it can be readily 
understood that artificial means of supplying plants with water must be 
done at a very low cost, otherwise it will not prove profitable. 

The amount of rain in any region is important in connection with 
crop production. In all regions where the annual rainfall averages less 
than twenty inches, failures from insufficient moisture in the soil are 
frequent. The distribution of the rain is quite as important as the total 
annual rainfall. That which falls during the crop-growing season is more 
important than that which comes in the non-growing season. Conse- 
quently, there are regions of comparatively low rainfall where the dis- 
tribution is so favorable that crop failures are infrequent. In other 
localities a large part of a good annual rainfall may come in the non- 
crop-growing season, and as a result, crops frequently suffer from drought. 
In moving from one region to another it is well to study the average rain- 
fall and its distribution. 

Amount of Water Necessary to Produce Crops. — In the processes of 
plant growth the amount of water transpired or given off by plants is 
many times greater than that used in the plant tissues. Investigations 
in different parts of the world and at several of the American experiment 
stations show that in plant growth the amount of water required to pro- 
duce a pound of dry matter ranges from 200 to 700 pounds. This amount 
must actually pass through plants. Each ton of dry matter in alfalfa 
takes 700 tons of water. Each ton of dry matter in wheat required about 
400 tons of water; in oats, about 500 tons; and in corn, about 300 tons. 
To produce three tons of alfalfa in one season requires from 16 to 17 
inches of rainfall, all of which must pass through the plants. A 20-bushel 
crop of wheat would require about 6 inches, and 40 bushels of oats 6|; 
while 50 bushels of corn would require about 8| inches of rainfall. For 
crops of the yields mentioned there should be more rainfall during the 
growing season than above indicated, because of the loss of water by direct 
evaporation from the soil, plus additional amounts that may flow from 
the surface if the rain falls rapidly, together with some that may pass 
through the soil into the underdrainage. 

Transpiration by Plants. — Transpiration, or the amount of water 
that passes through the plant and is evaporated from the surface of the 
leaves, varies greatly in different localities, and is influenced by a num- 
ber of factors. Transpiration takes place most rapidly during the day- 
time and in the presence of plenty of sunshine and warmth. During the 
night-time it is reduced to a very small amount. Transpiration is increased 
with a reduction of the humidity of the air, with rise in temperature and 
with intensity of sunshine. It is also increased with an increase in the 
movement of the air. An increase in plant food tends to decrease it, as 
does also a rapid growth of the plant. Transpiration is more rapid in the 
presence of an abundance of soil moisture than it is when the soil is dry. 

Experiments at the University of Illinois by Dr. Hunt showed ar 



114 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

increase per aero in the dry matter in corn amounting to 1300 pounds in 
one week in July. On the basis of requiring 300 pounds of water for 
each pound of dry matter, the consumption of water by the growing corn 
in one week would equal 1.72 inches of rain. This, of course, is for a .-ingle 
week in the height of the growing season, but it shows the large amount of 
rainfall required to meet fully the needs of a large and rapidly growing 
crop. It should emphasize the importance of storing in the soil the largest 
possible amount of available water to tide over periods of deficiency 
in rainfall. 

Forms of Soil Water. — Water exists in the soil in three forms: (1) 
gravitational water, or that which is free to move through the soil under 
the influence of gravity; (2) capillary water, or that which is held against 
the force of gravity by capillary power or, as it is sometimes called, sur- 
face tension; (3) hygroscopic water, or that which adheres to the soil 
particles so firmly that it will not be given off, even when the soil becomes 
dry. Not all of the water in the soil is available for plants. Very few of 
our economic plants use any of the gravitational water of the soil, except 
as it may rise by capillarity and be used from the capillary store which 
it replenishes. It is also certain that plants cannot benefit from the 
hygroscopic water of the soil, because they are unable to get it from the 
soil particles by which it is so tenaciously held in this form. The capil- 
lary water is, therefore, the one form that is of importance in plant 
growth. The relative amounts of the three forms of water in the soil 
depend on a number of factors. 

The amount of pore space in soils ranges from 35 to 60 per cent of 
the volume of the soil. When there is no underdrainage and a super- 
abundance of rain this space may become fully occupied with water to 
the exclusion of air. The soil is then said to be saturated. If rains cease 
and underdrainage is established, the gravitational water will esca] e by 
means of the drainage channels. The amount which will escape in this 
way is determined chiefly by the texture of the soil and the percentage 
of pore space in it. The larger the pore space, the greater the amount of 
water that will escape in this way; the finer the texture of the soil, the 
larger the amount held by capillarity and the less the amount that will 
escape by drainage. 

Capillary Water. — This is the important portion of the soil water 
supply. It is the form on which plants wholly depend for their water 
supply. Plants cannot exhaust from the soil all of the capillary water, 
because a portion of it will be too tenaciously held by the soil particles to 
be removed by the plant root hairs. The optimum, or most favorable 
percentage of water in the soil for plants, differs for different crops. Such 
crops as corn and potatoes do best with a moderate percentage of water 
in the soil, which gives opportunity for plenty of air. Such plants as 
timothy, redtop and other grasses do best when the percentage of water 
in the soil is somewhat higher. Field experiments have shown that when 



SOIL WATER 



115 



the water content of the soil is increased 25 per cent above the optimum 
percentage, plants begin to suffer as a result of too much moisture, and 
when the moisture falls 25 per cent below the optimum, they suffer from 
drought. 

The amount of capillary water in the soil is determined chiefly by 
its texture. The following table shows the percentage of water held by 
soils ranging in texture from coarse sand to clay, when subjected to a 




Effect of Little, Medium, and Much Water on Wheat. 1 



centrifugal force 2940 times that of gravity. A coarse sand held only 
4.6 per cent of moisture, while clay held 46.5 per cent or ten times as 
much. The water held under natural conditions by the several classes 
of soil given in the table would be much larger, but the relative amounts 
would be the same. 

Capillary Moisture in Soil. 



Class. 



Percentage of 
Clay in Soil. 



Coarse sand 

Medium sandy loam 
Fine sandy loam 

Silt 

Silt loam 

Clay loam 

Clay 



4.8 

7.3 
12.6 
10.6 
17.7 
26.6 
59.8 



Percentage of Moisture 

Retained against Force 

2940 1 imes that of 

Gravity. 

4.6 

7.0 
11.8 
12.9 
26.9 
32.4 
46.5 



Capillary water is also influenced to some extent by the structure of 
the soil, and to somewhat greater extent by its content of humus or 

i Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe, 



lit; SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

organic matter. Soils of fine texture and those having plenty of organic 

matter hold the largest amount of capillary water, and are able to with- 
stand periods of drought better than those with a lesser capacity. 

Plant roots move toward the water supply in the soil, and as they 
withdraw water from the soil particles, water moves to those points by 
capillary action to replace that removed. The rate of capillary move- 
ment is slowest in soils cf fine texture, and is most rapid in sandy soils. 
The distance through which capillary power acts on the other hand is 
least in sandy soils, and greatest in soils of fine texture. We find, there- 
fore, that plant roots are most extensive in sandy soils and extend to 
greater depths in search of a water supply. 

Gravitational Water. — Since gravitational water is but little used by 
plants, it becomes a menace in soils more often than a benefit. Over large 
areas of comparatively level land where there is an abundant rainfall, it 
often becomes necessary to remove the gravitational water by means of 
various forms of drainage. The movement of gravitational water within 
the soil depends chiefly on the texture and structure of the soil. The 
amount that needs to be removed under agricultural conditions depends 
chiefly on the rainfall of the region and the amount that escapes over the 
surface of the land. The depth to which this gravitational Mater should 
be removed w T ill be determined chiefly by the character of crops to be 
grown. Seldom is it advisable to place underdrains for this purpose at 
a depth of less than three feet. For deep-rooted crops, such as alfalfa 
and orchard fruits, four feet and sometimes more is advisable. 

While this form of water may be injurious to upland plants, when 
il exists at a depth of from four to six feet below the surface it docs no 
harm and serves as a. reservoir from which water may be drawn by cap- 
illarity to meet the losses above by evaporation and plant removal. 

Hygroscopic Water. — The water which is held by the soil when a 
thin layer is spread out and allowed to become air dry is called hygro- 
scopic moisture. When this soil is placed in an oven and heated to the 
temperature of boiling water for several hours, it loses its hygrosc< ] ic 
water and becomes water free. The amount of this form of water held 
by soils varies directly with the texture of the soil and may amount to 
as much as 10.5 per cent in case of clay, while in a muck soil it may be 
as high as 50 per cent. The percentage of hygroscopic water will also be 
influenced by the temperature and humidity of the air with which it comes 
in contact. 

Water Affects Temperature of the Soil. — A requisite degree of warmth 
in the soil is essential to physical, chemical and biological processes that 
make for soil fertility. Warmth is essential to the germination of seeds 
and growth of plants. The chief source of warmth in the soil is from the 
Hin. The rapidity with which a soil warms under the influence of the sun 
depends more largely on its water content than on any other factor. 
( >ue pound <•!' water requires four times as much heat to increase its tern- 



SOIL WATER 117 



perature one degree as would be required by an equal weight of soil. An 
excess of water in the soil, therefore, greatly lessens its rate of warming. 
In wet soils much evaporation of water takes place at the surface. It 
requires more than five times as much heat to transform one pound of 
water from liquid to vapor as it does to raise the temperature of an equal 
weight of water from the freezing to the boiling point. In other words, 
the heat consumed in the process of evaporation is sufficient to cause a 
change of 900 degrees in temperature in an equal volume of water. This 
fact emphasizes the importance of removing surplus water by means of 
drainage, instead of allowing it to evaporate from the surface of the soil. 
An amount of evaporation sufficient to maintain a proper soil tempera- 
ture in prolonged heat periods may be desirable, but excessive evaporation 
is undesirable in temperate latitudes, especially during the early grow- 
ing season. Reduced temperature as the resul ; of such evaporation often 
causes disaster during the seeding cr planting season and retards the 
early growth of crops. 

Water Storage Capacity of Soils. — Since the rains of summer are 
rarely fully adequate to meet the needs of growing plants, it is essential 
to increase the storage capacity of the soil as far as possible. For this 
purpose, the chief agencies are plowing, methods of tillage and the use 
of organic manures. Deep plowing and the incorporation of organic 
matter to the full depth of plowing will increase very materially the 
capacity of the soil for water. In conjunction with this, the soil should 
be so cultivated that it will receive the rainfall and thus have an oppor- 
tunity for holding it. This means the maintenance of a porous surface 
so that rainfall will not escape over the surface until the soil has become 
filled with water. 

Those crops endowed with the power of deep-root penetration, such 
as alfalfa, can draw their moisture from greater depths in the soil than 
shallow-rooted crops. In regions of low rainfall this amounts to the 
same thing as increasing the storage capacity of the surface portion of 
the soil. 

Moisture Conservation. — The practical conservation of soil moisture 
is effected chiefly by preventing direct evaporation from the surface of 
the soil, and also by exterminating all foreign plants in the nature of 
weeds that tend to rob the crops of their moisture supply. Evaporation 
is most economically reduced to the minimum by surface tillage and the 
establishment of an earth mulch. The earth mulch to the depth of two 
or three inches is formed by periodic cultivation or a stirring of the surface 
of the soil so as to break the capillary action with the soil immediately 
beneath. The efficiency of such mulches depends largely on the perfec- 
tion with which they are made. A surface mulch to be effective should 
consist of rather finely pulverized loose soil. This becomes dry to such 
an extent that the soil moisture film is discontinuous and water ceases to 
rise to the immediate surface. In this condition, any loss that takes place 



I is 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



must result from the escape of water within the soil pores. A little loss 
will take place in this way. Such mulches must be renewed at intervals 
more or less frequent, depending on the rainfall and the rapidity with 
which the surface soil may become compacted. In the absence of rains, 
a well-established mulch will last for a long time. On the other hand, 
a comparatively light rain will spoil the mulch and establish capillary 
connection with the soil below. 

Mulches of straw, manure and other organic materials are some- 




Orchard Well Cultivated to Prevent Evaporation. 1 



times used. These are very effective, but are often expensive. Such 
mulches are most common in orchards in case of small fruits, straw- 
berries, and sometimes for potatoes and tomatoes. 

Where green manuring crops which are to be followed promptly 
with money crops arc used, it is well to take the precaution to plow these 
under before they have thoroughly exhausted the moisture supply of the 
soil. Precaution should also be taken in plowing under green manure 
crops and barnyard manure to avoid possibility of cutting off the capil- 
lary connection between the plowed and unplowed portion o*f the soil. 



i Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe. 



SOIL WATER 11!) 



Removing Excess of Water. — Excess of soil water pertains only to 
that above described as gravitational water. This may be removed by 
deep, open drains and by underdrains. Methods of drainage will be dis- 
cussed in another topic. 

On comparatively level lands where surface water often accumulates, 
its escape may be encouraged by so plowing the land that it will lie in slight 
ridges and continuous depressions. If the depressions have a continuous 
fall, all of the surface water will slowly escape from the land into natural 
drainage channels and without causing erosion. 

Excess of water is sometimes removed by the use of crops, although 
this does not pertain to gravitational water. In most localities it is desir- 
able to have the growth of orchard trees cease as the season draws to a 
close, in order that the wood may harden and withstand winter freezing. 
For this purpose orchards are frequently planted with crops that draw 
heavily on the soil moisture for the purpose of so exhausting it that the 
growth of the trees will be checked. This serves not only a good purpose 
with reference to the condition of the orchard, but produces organic 
matter that may be plowed under for the benefit of the soil and the trees. 

LAND DRAINAGE 

A wet soil is cold and late. It can seldom be plowed and tilled at 
the proper time. Most farm crops do not make satisfactory growth in a 
wet soil, and, therefore, it seldom pays to farm such land. 

Wet lands, when drained, are generally above the average in fertility. 
Money invested in drainage seldom fails to bring good returns. In many 
cases the increase in crops, following drainage, has paid for its cost in 
one year. 

Drainage Increases Warmth and Fertility of Soil. — When an excess 
of soil water is removed through underground drains it permits the soil 
to warm up rapidly under the influence of the sun; lengthens the growing 
season; increases the number of days during which the soil is in good 
condition to plow; increases aeration of the soil; encourages the deep 
penetration of the roots of plants, and as a result makes the plants 
resistant to drought. Drainage is, therefore, the first essential to soil 
fertility. 

Improves Health Conditions. — Drainage also improves health con- 
ditions. The drainage of large areas of swampy land in the vicinity of 
populous districts has often been undertaken for this purpose alone and 
without any regard to the increased agricultural value of the land. Large 
portions of the prairie region when first settled were sufficiently wet to 
furnish abundant breeding places for mosquitoes. The great nmnbers of 
mosquitoes were not only a great annoyance, but were responsible for 
thousands of cases of malaria, which greatly reduced the health and 
efficiency of people living in that region. Tile drainage that has been so 
extensively established in most of that region has practically abolished 



L20 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

breeding places for mosquitoes, and caused their disappearance to Buch a 

degree that malaria is now practically unknown in that region. 

Open vs. Underground Drains. — The gravitational water in the soil 
may be Lowered to the depth of two or three feet below the surface by 

open drains, bu1 the same can be more economically effected by the installa- 
tion of underground drains. Open drains waste much land, the ditches 
are subject to erosion and their presence interferes with cultural opera- 
tions. They are also expensive to maintain, because of the necessity of 
annually cleaning them. 

Underground or tile drains are more effective than open ones. They 
waste no land, require practically no outlay for annual maintenance', do 
not interfere with cultural operations and are permanent. The cosi of 
excavating for underground drains is less than that for an equal length 
of open drains, because in the former very narrow trenches are excavated 
which are filled as soon as the tile is in place. 

Quality of Tile.— Burned clay pipes are almost universally used for 
soil drains. They are made in sections, from 12 to 24 inches long, having 
an internal diameter ranging from 3 to 16 inches. Since the installation 
of underground drainage is to be permanent, care should be exercised in 
the selection and purchase of the tile. Only the straight, well-burned 
tile should be used. A well-burned tile is generally dark in color, and 
gives a decided ring when struck with a light metal. Formerly it was 
thought that such tiles should be quite pervious to water, but it is now 
understood that the openings at the joints are ample to admit the water 
from the soil as fast as it can reach the lines of tile. 

Cost of Tile and Excavating. — The cost of installing underground 
drainage depends on the cost of the tile laid down on the land, the fre- 
quency of the underground lines of drainage as determined by the per- 
meability of the soil to water, together with the cost of digging the trenches 
as determined by the ease or difficulty in excavating the soil. The cost 
of the tile will vary with the locality, the freight charges and the distance 
they must be hauled. In general, the price of the tile per 1000 feet F. O. B. 
cars, at the factories, will be as follows: 

Size Price. 

:; inch S10.00 $12.00 

I •• L5.00 20.00 

-, - 20.00- 27.00 

6 " 27.00 35.00 

7 « ' 36 00 50.00 

g " 15 00 60 00 

10 " " tin 00 1 10.00 

12 u ............ . 90.00 L50.00 

The cos! of digging the trenches will vary greatly with the character 
and condition -.1' the soil t.» be excavated, the skill of the digger and the 
prevailing cosi of labor in the locality. Deep trenches cosi relatively 
more to excavate than shallow ones, because the trenches must be wider 



SOIL WATER 121 



at the top to accommodate the workman, and the earth in the bottom of 
the trenches is more difficult to remove. Where the soil is free from 
stones and hardpan, trenches are frequently excavated to the depth of 
three feet, and the tiles placed ready for filling the trenches, at a cost of 
thirty cents per linear rod. Below the depth of three feet and up to five 
feet, excavating under similar conditions will cost about one cent per 
inch per rod. 

Depth and Frequency of Drains. — The depth at which to place the 
tile drains will be determined by the class of crops to be grown and the 
character of the subsoil. Three feet in depth is considered ample for 
most farm crops, but for orchards, alfalfa and especially deep-rooted 
crops, a depth of four feet is preferred. There are many localities, how- 
ever, where the impervious character of the subsoil is such that tiles can 
be placed only twenty-four or thirty inches deep, and permit the water 
to enter. Even under these conditions, tile drainage is generally advisable. 

The distance between lines of drain will depend chiefly on the char- 
acter of the soil, with special reference to its permeability to water. A 
soil and subsoil that is sandy or loamy in character will frequently be 
satisfactorily drained with lines of tile 200 to 300 feet apart. On the 
other hand, a dense clay will sometimes necessitate the lines of drains 
being placed at intervals of not more than 30 to 40 feet. This, of course, 
makes underdrainage much more expensive than in the former case. 
The deeper the tile is placed the farther the lines may be apart. 

Where land to be drained is uniformly wet, the gridiron or regular 
system is to be preferred. The irregular system will answer the purpose 
for the drainage of wet spots or sloughs. The main lines should follow 
approximately the natural depressions or water courses, while the laterals 
may run up and down the slopes. Rather long parallel lines are more 
economical than short ones with numerous branches. 

Grades, Silt Basins and Junctions. — All lines of underdrainage should 
be laid with uniform grades. If the topography of the land necessitates 
a change in the grade, in which the grade in the lower portion of the line 
is less than in the upper portion, a silt basin should be placed at the point 
where the change of grade takes place. When the reverse is true, a silt 
basin is not necessary. Where laterals enter a main or sub-main which 
has a lesser fall than the laterals, silt basins should also be installed. 
Laterals should enter the main above the center of the pipe, rather than 
below it. All junctions should be made at an angle of about forty-five 
degrees up-stream. A fall of one foot in one hundred feet is considered 
a heavy grade. A fall of one inch in one hundred feet will give good 
results, although more fall than this is better. In the level prairie sections 
of the country hundreds of miles of tile are laid with a grade of only one- 
half inch in one hundred feet, and where great care is exercised in laying 
the tile, difficulty has seldom been encountered. 

On level land a fair grade may be obtained by gradually lessening 



12i 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



the depth of the tile from the lower to the upper end of any branch. In 
a drainage line 1200 feet in length a fall of one inch in each hundred feet 
may be obtained by having the lower end of the line 3| feet below the 
surface of the ground, and the upper end 2\ feet below the surface, even 
though the land along this line is absolutely level. 

The Outlet. — The first essential for a satisfactory system of under- 
ground drainage is a good outlet. The outlet must be the lowest point 
in the whole drainage system, and water should seldom, if ever, stand 
above the opening of the tile. 

The outlet of the main should be protected by a screen in such a way 
that rabbits and other animals cannot enter. At the outlet the tiles are 

subject to freezing more than elsewhere in the 
system, as a result of which they may be 
broken. It is well to provide for this by 
using a wooden box, or an iron pipe as a 
substitute for the earthen tile. This should 
extend back from the opening six or eight 
feet to a position where it will not become 
frozen. 

Size of Tile. — The size of the main 
outlet or line is determined by the area to 
be drained, together with the water-shed 
contributary to it. Not only must we 
figure on removing all of the rainfall that 
descends directly on the land to be drained, 
but we must also calculate on the amount 
of water that reaches such land from adjacent higher land, whether 
as surface wash or underground seepage. The maximum amount of 
water necessary to remove from the land in order to effect satisfactory 
drainage will depend chiefly on the rainfall likely to occur in short periods 
of time during the growing season. It will seldom be necessary to provide 
for the removal of more than one-half inch of water in twenty-four hours. 
( )n this basis a system of tiles flowing at full capacity will remove rain- 
fall at the rate of fifteen inches per month. This is much in excess of the 
usual rainfall in any part of the country. The removal of one-quarter 
inch of rainfall in twenty-four hours will generally provide adequate drain- 
age. The size of tile required to accomplish removal of water at the 
above mentioned rate will be determined largely by the grades that it is 
possible to secure. The size of tile required is given in the chapter on 
"Drainage and Irrigation." 




"Water ISSUING FROM AN 
Underground Drain. 1 



'Courtesy of Orange Judd Company. From " Soils and Crops." by Hunt ai.d Burfcett. 



SOIL WATER 123 



REFERENCES 
"Dry Farming." MacDonald. 
"Dry Farming." Widtsoe. 
"Dry Farming. " Shaw. 
Kansas Expt. Station Bulletin 206. "Relation of Moisture to Yield of Wheat in 

Kansas." 
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 114. "Storing Moisture in the Soil." 
Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 104. "Storage of Winter Precipitation in Soils." 



CHAPTER 8 

General Methods of Soil Management 

The art of soil management consists in so manipulating the twc 
million pounds of soil constituting the average plowed portion of each 
acre, that it will give the largest returns without impairing the soil. The 
best chance of attaining success in the art of soil management is in the 
hands of the man who best understands the principles underlying it. 
The art of soil management is the result of more than 1000 years of accumu- 
lated experience, while the science is very much a matter of yesterday. 
It is not to be expected that science will revolutionize the art, but it will 
explain why many operations are performed and will also suggest improv< - 
ments in the manner of performing them. There are no definite rules 
relative to methods of soil tillage. The best way of performing a certain 
operation of soil tillage at any particular time and place is generally a 
matter of judgment on the part of the farmer. Accuracy in judgment 
on his part is greatly strengthened through knowledge of the underlying 
principles. 

Objects of Tillage. — The chief objects of tillage are: (1) to im] rove 
the physical condition of the soil; (2) to turn under plant residues that 
have accumulated at the surface and incorporate them with the soil; (3) 
to destroy weeds; and (4) to provide a suitable seed-lied. 

In recent years great changes have taken place in the method- of 
tillage, due chiefly to the invention and use of labor-saving implements. 
In this connection it is well to know the approximate duty of the cultural 
implements that are available. In a general way the duty of a cultural 
implement is obtained by multiplying the width in feet which it covers in 
passing over the field by 1.4. For example, a 12-inch plow will pl< w. i n 
an average 1.4 acres of land per day. A harrow 6 feet in width would 
harrow 8.4 acres. The duty will vary somewhat with conditions, Mich 
as speed in process of operation, the length of day and percent as. 
time when not in actual operation. With good fast-walking teams and 
implements of light draft, the acreage covered per day may be somewhat 
increased. < >n the other hand, if much time is lost, it' the teams are slow 
or if implements are of heavy draft, the acreage will be reduced. These 
facts are important in connection with determining the extent of equip- 
ment required to perform satisfactorily the operations on a farm of given 

size. 

Plowing. — Plowing is the most expensive tillage operation in <■« d- 
nection with crop production. For this reason it is important to know 

when it is necessary to plow the land and how deep it should be plowed, 

124 



METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 



12,' 



since both depth and frequency of plowing bear directly on the cost of 
the operation. Mold-board and disk plows are used for this purpose. 
Either of these implements turn the soil, pulverize it and cover rubbish. 
The implement to be preferred is determined largely by the character of 
the soil and its condition. Disk plows work best in rather dry soil. Mold- 
board plows are much more extensively used and will work under a wider 
range of soil conditions. The form of the mold-board plow varies con- 
siderably, and different forms are applicable to different purposes and 
different soils. The sod plow has the minimum curvature and inverts 




A Deep Tilling Double-Disk Plow. 1 



the furrow slice with the least pulverization of the soil. The stubble or 
breaking plow has much more curvature of the mold board, and gives 
more thorough pulverization of the soil. The greater the curvature of 
the mold board and the more thorough the pulverization of the soil as a 
result of it, the heavier will be the draft. Sharpness of the share and 
smoothness of the plow surface tend toward lightness of draft. The 
presence of roots and stones may somewhat increase the draft of plows. 
The texture, structure and physical condition of the soil, especially with 
reference to its water content, greatly influence draft. The soil plows 

1 Courtesy of The Spalding Tilling Machine Company, Cleveland, Ohio. 



126 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

most easily when it is in a fairly moist condition and most easily pulver- 
ized. The draft of the plow will be increased both when the soil is too 
wet and when it is too dry. 

Coulters and jointers are both attached to plows to influence draft 
and improve the character of plowing. Coulters are for two purposes: 
(1) those which cut the roots separating the furrow slice from the unplowed 
land, and (2) those which cut vines and rubbish, preventing their dragging 
across the plow standard and clogging the plow. Polling coulters are 
best for the latter purpose, while standard cutters may be equally as 
good for cutting the roots in the soil. The chief object of the jointer is 
to push the surface rubbish into the furrow so that it will be more com- 
pletely covered. Sulky plows are often used instead of walking plows. 
The chief advantage in the sulky plow is in reducing the labor of the 
plowman and in more effective plowing. It is claimed that sulky plows 
reduce the draft of the plow by relieving the friction on the bottom and 
land side of the furrow. Under most favorable conditions there may be 
a slight reduction in draft, but under average conditions the weight of 
the sulky and the plowman more than offset the reduced friction. 

Plowing at the same depth many years in succession often gives 
rise to a compacted layer just below the depth of plowing, known as plow 
sole or hardpan. This is a fault which may be avoided by changing 
slightly the depth of plowing from year to year. The plowman often 
looks with pride on what may be poor plowing. The furrow slice should 
not be completely inverted like a plank turned the other side up, but one 
furrow slice should lean against the previous one in such a way that the 
rubbish will be distributed from a portion of the bottom of the furrow 
nearly to the surface of the plowed ground. At the same time a portion 
of the furrow slice should be in direct contact witli the soil below. This 
permits good capillary connection for a portion of each furrow slice. 
When there is an abundance of rubbish to be turned under, it is often 
wise to disk the land before plowing. This loosens the surface of the soil 
and causes some mixture of it with the rubbish. When plowed under 
in this condition it does not form so continuous a layer to cut off capillary 
water from below. Disking in advance of plowing in case of rather com- 
pact soil also facilitates the pulverization of the furrow slice and results 
in a better pulverized seed-bed. 

Time of Plowing. — The best time to plow depends on many conditions. 
There is no particular season that will be better than other seasons under 
all conditions. The old maxim, "Plow when you can," is a good one to 
follow. Plowing done in the fall or early winter lessens the rush of work 
in the following spring, and under most conditions fall plowing ^ives 
better results than spring plowing. Fall plowing in temperate latitudes 
subjects the exposed soil to the element- and results in destruction of 
insects and ;i thorough pulverization of the soil, due to freezing and thaw- 
ing. Fall plowing should neither be harrowed nor disked, but left in a 



METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 



127 



rough condition in order to collect the rains and snows during the winter. 
This will result in storage of the winter rainfall and prevent erosion, 
unless by chance the land is steep and rains are very heavy. Under the 
latter conditions it may not be wise to practice fall plowing. In warmer 
latitudes plowing may be done during the winter, and when land is plowed 
in the autumn it should be seeded with a cover crop to prevent erosion. 
In the Northern states and Canada fall plowing is generally recommended, 
but in the South spring plowing is considered preferable. Spring plowing, 
unless it be very early, should be harrowed soon afterward in order to 




A Badly Eroded Field. 1 
Damage of this character reflects no credit on American agriculture. 



conserve soil moistures. Generally it will be found good practice to 
harrow towards the close of each day the land that has been plowed during 
the day. If the soil is rather dry and weather conditions very dry, it may 
be better to harrow it each half day. In case of sod and compact soil, 
disking in advance of plowing is advised. 

Depth of Plowing. — The depth of plowing is determined by the 
character of the soil and the kind of crop to be grown. In general, fall 
plowing should be deeper than spring plowing. Deep-rooted crops call 



'Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils. 
'field County, South Carolina." 

10 



From " Soil Survey of Fair- 



128 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

for deeper plowing than shallow-rooted ones. For corn, potatoes and 
heavy truck crops, dee]) plowing is generally advised. For oats, barley, 
flax, millet and other spring annuals, shallow plowing generally gives as 
good results as dee]) plowing, and at a less cost. In the long run, deep 
plowing for most soils is to be recommended. Deep plowing increases 
the depth of soil from which the mass of plant roots draw moisture and 
plant food; it increases the water-holding capacity of the soil; it incor- 
porates the organic matter to a greater depth in the soil; it enables the 
soil to receive and hold the rainfall, thus reducing erosion. 

Where shallow plowing has been the practice, the depth of plowing 
should be increased gradually, one-half inch to one inch each year, until 
the desired depth has been obtained. This gives better results than 
increasing to the full depth at once. On virgin land with deep soil shallow 
plowing during the early years of cultivation may give as good results 
as deep plowing. Much depends on the nature of the soil,- and wherever 
the soil at the depth of six to ten inches is compact, deep plowing and the 
incorporation of organic matter will improve it. 

Subsoiling. — Subsoiling pertains to loosening the subsoil below the 
usual depth of plowing. Subsoil plows are constructed to run to a d< pth 
of sixteen to eighteen inches, with a view of loosening and slightly lifting the 
subsoil. It is neither turned nor brought to the surface. Such a practice 
is even more expensive than plowing and, consequently, more than doubles 
the cost of the preparation of the land for crops. While it may prove 
beneficial, many tests indicate that* the practice does not generally pay 
for the expense involved. Doubtless much will depend upon the value 
of the land, the character of subsoil and the nature of the crops to be 
grown. On valuable land having impervious subsoil, and for high- 
priced crops, it may frequently pay. How long the benefits from sub- 
soiling will last is determined by the rapidity with which the soil returns 
to its former compact condition. Heavy rains and thorough saturation 
with water often soon overcomes the benefits of subsoiling. As a gen< ral 
practice, subsoiling is not to be recommended. It might prove 1 i aeficial 
in semi-arid regions as a means of increasing the water storage capacity 
of the soil to tide over long periods of drought. In such regions the bene- 
ficial results are likely to be more lasting than where the rainfall is heavy. 
Both in practice and theory dee]) plowing is preferable to subsoiling. 

Disking.— There are two forms of disk harrows: (1) having a solid 
disk, and (2) having a serrated disk and known as the cutaway disk. 
The latter is generally lighter than the former, is adapted to stony and 
gravelly soil and for light work. The full disk is more generally used. 
although in double disks both the full disk and the cutaway disk are 
sometimes combined in the same implement. The disk harrow stirs 
the soil to a greater depth than do most other forms of harrows. It is 
especially useful on land thai has been plowed for some time and has 
become somewhat compacted. Fall plowing and early spring plowing, 



METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 129 

when being prepared for medium to late planted crops, should generally 
be gone over once or twice with the disk. 

A large portion of the spring oats in the Central States are seeded 
on land prepared by the use of the disk and harrow, and without plowing. 
The disk is the most effective implement in the preparation of the seed- 
bed for oats. This method of preparing the land enables farmers to 
accomplish early seeding on a large scale. Early seeding of oats is impor- 
tant in connection with good yields. 

Harrowing. — There are many forms of harrows varying in style of 
teeth, number of teeth, weight and adjustment. The steel frame harrow 
with levers to adjust the teeth, built in sections that are joined together, 
is generally preferred. The size or width of the harrow is usually deter- 
mined by the number of sections it has. It is an implement of light draft, 
and to be effective should be used in the nick of time. Repeated harrow- 
ing is often advised (1) for the purpose of maintaining a surface mulch 
to conserve moisture, and (2) to destroy weeds just as they start growth. 
The spring-toothed harrow is effective in stony and gravelly soil, and 
tends to loosen the soil more than the spike-toothed harrow. The former 
is best for destroying weeds and loosening the soil, while the latter is 
preferable for soil pulverization and for covering small seeds that are 
broadcasted, such as clovers, grass seeds and the millets. While the 
harrow is generally used just prior to seeding and planting, it is found 
to be a good practice to harrow such crops as corn and potatoes after 
planting, and sometimes even after they are up. Such harrowing is often 
fully as effective in destroying weeds and pulverizing the soil as a good 
cultivation would be. It is much more rapidly and cheaply done than 
cultivating. 

Planking or Dragging. — The plank drag is a cheap implement con- 
sisting of three or four two-inch planks fastened securely together with 
the edges overlapping. These may be eight to twelve feet in length. 
It is used for pulverizing clods and smoothing the surface of the ground. 
It is an effective implement to use where fine pulverization of the surface 
is desired, and works satisfactorily when the soil is rather dry. 

Rolling. — The roller serves two chief purposes: (1) to compact the 
soil, and (2) to pulverize clods. The weight and size of the roller are 
important in this connection. Soil compacting calls for considerable 
weight, while pulverization demands a roller of comparatively small 
diameter. In recent years the corrugated roller with a discontinuous 
surface has come into use and is thought to be superior to the old style. 
It compacts the soil and yet leaves some loose soil at the surface, thus 
lessening direct evaporation. The roller should be used only when the 
soil is in dry condition and when it is desirable to encourage capillary 
rise of water and establish conditions favorable for the germination of 
seeds that lie near the surface of the soil. Rolling is most frequently 
resorted to in preparing the seed-bed for winter wheat. This crop calls 



130 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



for a compart and well-pulverized seed-bed. In the winter wheat regions 
the soils are frequently dry at the time winter wheat should be seeded. 

A roller known as the subsurface packer has come into use in the 
semi-arid regions. This implement, consisting of a eeries of heavy disks, 
is so constructed as to compact the soil to a considerable depth, leaving 
two or three inches of loose scil at the surface. It encourages capillary 
rise of water without encouraging surface evaporation. 




Details of a Guod Seed Bed. 1 



Character of Seed-Bed. — The ideal seed-bed is determined by the 
character of crop to be grown. Wheat, rye. alfalfa, the clovers and most 
small seeds call for a finely pulverized, compad seed-bed. If these con- 
ditions are combined with a good supply of moisture these crops will 
make a prompt and satisfactory growth. Such crops as corn and potatoes 
call for a deep, loose seed-bed, and do not demand the same degree of 

pulverization of the soil as the crops above mentioned. Oats and barley 

do best with a fairly loose and open seed-bed, but demand fairly good 

J Courtesy of The Campbell Soil Culture Publishing Co. From "Wheat." by Ten Eyck. 



METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 131 



pulverization of the soil. As a rule, all small seeds need a seed-bed that 
has been thoroughly well prepared, while larger seeds, and especially 
those of crops that are to be inter-tilled, may be planted with less thorough- 
ness in seed-bed preparation. The after-tillage will often overcome a 
lack of previous preparation. 

An even distribution of seed, especially when it is sown broadcast, 
is essential. This, together with uniformity in germination, makes for 
perfection in stand of plants. The character of seed-bed is important in 
this connection. A well-prepared seed-bed facilitates a good stand, 
while a poorly prepared one often does just the reverse. 

Cultivation and Hoeing. — Cultivation and hoeing pertain wholly to 
inter-tilled crops, such as corn, potatoes, beets, tomatoes, cabbage and a 
great many other garden crops. As a rule, cultivation should be sufficiently 
frequent during the early stages of growth to maintain a satisfactory 
soil mulch and destroy all weeds. This is best accomplished by cultivating 
or hoeing at just the right time. Weeds are easily destroyed when quite 
small. One cultivation at the right time is more effective than two or 
three cultivations when weeds have become large. As a rule, little is to 
be gained by inter-tillage when there are no weeds and when there is a 
satisfactory soil mulch. The frequency of cultivation is, therefore, largely 
determined by these factors. Ordinarily, nothing is to be gained by 
cultivating deeper than necessary to destroy weeds and maintain a good 
soil mulch. Two to three inches in depth is generally sufficient. Deep 
cultivation frequently destroys roots of the crop cultivated, much to its 
detriment. 

Throughout most of the corn belt shallow and level cultivation is 
practiced. This seems to give better results than deeper cultivation or 
the ridging of the soil by throwing the earth toward the corn plants. 
Ridging the soil causes rain to flow quickly to the depressions midway 
between the rows, and encourages soil erosion. Level cultivation with 
numerous small furrows close together encourages more thorough pene- 
tration of the rain. Level cultivation makes the seeding of oats easy, as 
it generally follows the corn with no other preparation than the disking 
of the land. 

Control of Weeds. — The time of plowing and the frequency and 
character of cultivation are related to the growth and eradication of 
weeds. Weed-seeds turned under to the full depth of plowing frequently 
lie dormant until the ground is again plowed and they are brought near 
to the surface. On spring-plowed land it is generally advisable to allow 
time for the weed-seeds to germinate, after which the small weeds may be 
destroyed by harrowing. Then crops may be planted with comparative 
safety so far as weed competition is concerned. In case of late plowing, 
it is advisable to plant or seed very promptly after the land is plowed in 
order that the crops may get ahead of the weeds. 

Weeds arc a great menace to crops, and especially to those that do 



132 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



not fully occupy the ground in their early periods of growth. Weeds 
compete with the farm crop plants for plant food and moisture. \\ here 
they have an equal start, they will frequently exterminate the crop 
unless removed promptly by cultivation. Weed destruction is most 
economically accomplished by hoeing and cultivating as soon as weeds 
have begun to grow. When such measures have been neglected and the 
weeds get a good start, it requires much more labor for their extermination. 
Soil Mulches.— -Aside from the soil mulch mentioned under the 
topic of cultivation and hoeing, mulches of straw, manure and other 
organic substances are resorted to in exceptional cases. These serve 




Terracing as a Means of Preventing Erosion. 1 

both to conserve soil moisture and to keep down weeds. They therefore 
i bviate the aecessity for hoeing and cultivating. Such mulches encourage 
capillary rise of soil moisture to the immediate surface of the ground. 
Furthermore, upon the decay of the mulch, organic matter and plant 
food are added to the soil. Such mulches are applicable only under inten- 
sive systems of farming and where the materials may be secured withcul 
too great cosl . 

Soil Erosion. Soils are eroded by the rapid movement of both wind 
and water. Wind erosion occurs mosl extensively in the sandy regions 

i From Year-Book, U. - IgricuJtiire, 1913. 



METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 



133 



of the semi-arid belt, especially in western Kansas and Oklahoma. Such 
soil destruction calls for surface protection, either by a continuous covering 
of plants, or by such methods of cultivation as will prevent the movement 
of the surface soil. In those regions it is recommended that the plow 
furrows be at right angles to the prevailing direction of the wind, and 
that the drill rows of grain be likewise at right angles to the wind. Mulches 
of straw, especially in the wheat regions where straw is abundant, are also 
recommended. Such straw may be rolled with a subsurface packer to 
prevent its blowing from the soil. Under such conditions the surface 
soil should not be made too fine. 

In the South and in southern Illinois, Iowa and Missouri, soils erode 
badly as result of the movement of rain water. Such erosion often results 




Another Way to Stop Erosion. 1 



in deep and destructive gullies. These cause a direct loss of soil, and are 
barriers to continuous cultivation in the fields in which they occur. Such 
erosion should be prevented by every possible means before it proceeds 
far. Gullies may be stopped by the use of brush, weeds, straw and stone. 
These materials should be anchored in the gullies in such a way as to 
encourage them to fill with soil again. Deep plowing and the use of 
green manures, which encourage penetration of rains, help to overcome 
this erosion. Terracing the soil may be resorted to as a last means of 
preventing erosion. 

Soil Injury. — Soils are frequently injured by plowing and cultivating 
when they are too wet. Heavy soils are more susceptible to such injury 
than those of a sandy nature. Such injury is often difficult to overcome. 
It gives rise to a puddled condition of the soil. When plowed, it turns 

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company. 



134 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



up in hard clods which are difficult to pulverize. In this condition it 
requires more labor to prepare a seed-bed than if it had not been so injured. 

Soils are often seriously injured by the tramping of livestock. It is 
unwise to allow stock to run in the fields when the soil is in a very wet 
condition. Hauling manure or loads of any kind across the field when 
the soil is too wet often results in injury to such an extent that the 
tracks of the wagon may be seen even after the land has been plowed and 
cultivated. 

Time and Intensity of Tillage are Economic Factors. — The time 
to plow, disk harrow and cultivate is important in connection with the 
cost of the operations. It is essential to perform these tillage operations 
when the soil is in the best possible moisture condition. This enables 
the farmer to accomplish the desired result with the minimum amount 
of labor; consequently, his force of men and teams is able to properly 
care for the maximum acreage. It is easier and much less expensive to 
stir the soil at the right time and thus prevent bad physical condition 
than it is to change the bad physical condition to a good condition. A 
great deal of labor is required to reduce a hard, cloddy soil to a finely pul- 
verized condition. As above indicated, time of cultivation in connection 
with weed destruction is important. The farmer who is foresighted and 
plans his work in such a way as to avoid undue rush at busy seasons will 
be the one to accomplish t he various cultural operations with the minimum 
amount of labor. 

The intensity of tillage will be determined by a number of factors, 
such as the price of land, the cost of labor and the value of the product 
grown. With cheap labor, high-priced land and a valuable product, 
intensive methods of tillage are applicable. On the other hand, when 
labor is expensive, land is cheap and products are of low value, extensive 
methods of tillage must be applied. It is wise to keep the soil occupied 
as fully as possible. This is accomplished by crop rotations and a succes- 
sion of crops, one following another, throughout the growing season, so 
that at all times plants will be occupying the soil and gathering plant 
food as it becomes available 

The saving and utilization of all the manures produced on the farm 
is essential in this connection. It is more profitable to grow a full crop 
on five acres than it is to produce one-half a crop on ten acres. 

In general, soil utilization and management call for a thorough under- 
standing of the underlying principles and the adoption of methods of 
handling that accomplish good results without undue expense. Those 
practices which arc injurious and those which do not make for mainte- 
nance of fertility should be avoided. 



METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 135 

REFERENCES 

"Principles of Soil Management." Lyon and Fippin. 

"Crops and Methods of Soil Improvement." Agee. 

"Soils." Fletcher. 

"The Soil." Hall. 

"Soils." Burkett. 

Michigan Expt. Station Bulletin 273. "Utilization of Muck Lands." 

Missouri Expt. Station Circular 78. "Control of Soil Washing." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin ISO. "Soil Erosion in the South." 



PART II 
FARM BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT 



(137) 



CHAPTER 9 

Farm buildings, Fences and gates 

Farm buildings should be located and constructed with a view of 
meeting the needs of the farm and farmer's family. They should harmonize 
with the natural surroundings and have sufficient room for the housing of 
the farm animals, equipment and the storage of forage, grain and such other 
crops as may be grown. The number, character and size will be determined 
by the size of the farm and the type of farming. They should be as fully 
adapted to the type of farming as possible. Upon the plan of the farm, 
the arrangement of the farmstead and its position on the farm depends 
to a large extent the farmer's success. 

The Farm Residence. — With some farmers the housing of the live- 
stock is considered of more importance than the housing of the farmer and 
his family. Where capital is very limited and the farmer is accustomed to 
an exceedingly simple life, this may prove advantageous for a short time, 
in order to get a start. At the present time and in most localities, the 
housing of the farmer and his family properly receives first consideration. 
The farm residence should be the most important building of the farm. 
It should occupy a conspicuous place in the farmstead and bear a convenient 
relationship to the other buildings of the farm. There is more latitude 
relative to the direction the farm house should face than there is in case of 
the city house. This feature should be carefully considered in the construc- 
tion of the house, the position of verandas and the location of the living 
rooms. Size of windows and the entrance of sunlight should also be con- 
sidered in this connection. 

The foundation and the roof of the house are two important features. 
These should be constructed with reference to durability and strength as 
well as appearance. The height of the house or the height of the rooms 
may be increased with little additional cost, since this will increase the cost 
of neither foundation nor roof. There is little excuse, however, for tall 
houses in the country. Land is cheap and comparatively low structures 
harmonize better with country surroundings. 

It pays to paint a farm residence thoroughly immediately after its 
construction, and to re-paint whenever paint is needed. Paint lengthens the 
life of a house and makes it warmer. Light colors are generally preferred 
for country dwellings. The smoke and dirt which make bright colors 
impracticable and expensive in cities are not present in the country. Such 
colors harmonize with the green foliage that should surround a country 
residence. On new lumber, the first or priming coat should be mixed very 
thinly and applied promptly after the house is constructed. At the time 

(139) 




(Mo; 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 141 

of priming, the boards should be reasonably dry in order that the paint may 
enter the wood and fill any cracks that are present. It should be worked 
well into the wood with the brush and allowed to become thoroughly dry 

Plans of Farm House. 




FIRST FLOOR PLAN 



In warm weather the dining table is set in the screened porch, convenient to 
the kitchen. During the winter one end of the living-room takes the place 
of a dining-room. 




SECOND-' FLOOR PLAN 

There are three good bedrooms on the second floor, and the end 
ones have cross ventilation through the gable windows. 



before the second coat is applied. The second coat should be somewhat 
thicker, smoother and of the proper color. A third coat will generally be 
required, but the application should be deferred from three to six months. 



142 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



This allows time for the second coat to become hard and any small cracks 
that may open in the meantime by shrinking of the boards will be filled 
with paint. 

Whether the farmer does his own painting or hires it done, it is gener- 
ally advantageous for him to purchase his own paint, and to be careful to 
select durable materials. A high grade paint is usually the most econom- 
ical in the long run, and may be bought ready-mixed from any reliable 
dealer. 

BARNS 

The principal barn of the farm is second in importance only to the 
house. In case of noted livestock breeders or some large stock farms, the 




A Good Type of Barn. 1 

bara becomes the mosl important structure on the farm. The prime 
requisites for a good barn are convenience, especially in arrangement, 
comfort for the animals, ample storage room for feed, proper light and 
ventilation, and durable but not expensive construction. 

Whether all livestock on the farm should be housed in one structure 
or in several structures must be determined by the kind and number of 
stock reared. It is generally advisable to house the cows in a separate 
structure. The noise and odor of swine is detrimental to both the yield 
and quality of milk. Swine should not be kept in the main barn. If horses 
and cows are stabled in the same structure, they should have separate 
compartments. It will frequently be convenient to house the cows in the 
basement and the horses on the floor above them. This is the usual 



i Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Dcs Moines, Iowa. 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 143 

arrangement in case of bank barns. Where all stock is on the same floor, 
cows should be in an extension to the main structure. This should be only 
one story in height with no storage above. 

Bank Barns. — The chief advantage in the bank barn is in the ease 
with which materials are stored by driving the loaded wagons onto the upper 
floor. This obviates the necessity of hoisting materials to the height 
necessary in the other forms of barns. The ideal location for the bank barn 
is on a southern slope, thus facing the barn toward the south with exercise 
yards also to the south. When so situated the more elevated land to the 




Interior of Cow Stable. 1 



north brings the north wall of the stable below the surface, thus protecting 
the stable from cold north winds. The chief objection to the basement 
barn lies in its lack of light and thorough ventilation. This, hoAvever, may 
be largely overcome by not setting the basement too low in the earth and 
by providing plenty of windows, especially in the east and west walls. 

Dairy Barns. — Great improvement has been made in the housing of 
cows, and much attention is now given to the health of the animals and the 
production of clean milk, low in its content of bacteria. Best dairymen 
demand that the cow quarters shall be separated entirely from those of all 

Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Crops and Soil Management," by Agee. 



144 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



other stock. The structure should be narrow, housing no1 more than two 
rows of cows. The walls, floor and ceiling should he smooth and easily 
cleaned. For this reason concrete floors that can be frequently washed are 
preferred. Such floors do not absorb liquids, and if properly cleaned, 
avoid the objectionable odors so common in stables with wooden or earth 
floors. Milk is the most widely used uncooked food, and those producing 
market milk need conditions approaching the ideal for cleanliness in order 
to secure a high-grade product. Furthermore, the modern dairy cow is 
bred and fed for efficiency in milk production. This often taxes her health 
and shortens her life. It calls for the best sanitary surroundings to oxer- 
come this drawback. 

Storage Capacity. — The storage portion of the barn should connect 
with one end of the cow barn and should have posts of ample height to si i >re 

a year's supply of 
roughage and con- 
cent rates for the 
dairy herd. It 
should be moder- 
ately narrow and 
have sufficient 
length to meet the 
storage require- 
ments. The hay 
chutes and feed 
bins should be 
conveniently 
placed and con- 
nected with the 
cow stable by suit- 
able carriers, con- 
veyed on overhead 
tracks. 

Silos. — Silos 
will generally be 
needed and may be connected with the cow stable through a portion of the 
storage barn. This prevents the silage odor from permeating, the stable and 
contaminating the milk. It is usually considered best to have the storage 
structure extend east and west. This permits the cow stable to extend north 
and south, thus admitting sunshine from both the east and west, enabling 
it to sweep across all the floor surface during the day. When there is one 
extension it should connect near the center of the storage barn. When 
there are two they should connect one at each end of t he storage si ructure, 
thus leaving an open and protected court between the two COW stables. 
Floor Space and Arrangement— The width of the cow stable should 
be 36 feet and of sufficient length to accommodate the desired number of 




Economical and Practical MaJtdbe Shed. 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES Ul 




Plan for a Circular Barn. Floor Plan. 1 



cows. The two rows 
of cows face each other 
with a spacious feed 
alley between. Ma- 
nure alleys of requisite 
width are located be- 
tween the gutters and 
the outside walls. The 
width and depth of 
manure gutters, the 
form of feed troughs 
and the kind of stan- 
chions, together with 
many other details, 
may be obtained from 
bulletins on this sub- 
ject. 

Stable Floors. — 
Floors that absorb 
urine and are difficult 
to clean should be 
avoided in cow stables. 
Of all floor materials 

within reach of the average dairymen, concrete holds first place. It is 
durable, non-absorbent and can be disinfected without injury. Its chief 

objection is hardness 
and smoothness; the 
former may be partially 
overcome by the liberal 
use of bedding. Pre- 
cautions should be taken 
when making the floor 
to leave its surface 
slightly roughened with- 
out interfering with the 
ease of cleaning. Con- 
crete conducts cold 
more freely than other 
floor materials. For 
this reason it should be 
underlaid with eight 
inches or more of rather 
coarsely broken frag- 
ments of rock. The 
conductivity may be 




Elevation Plan. 



1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa. 



i w, 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



still further reduced by introducing a thin layer of asphalt or other 
non-conducting material an inch beneath the surface of that portion of 
the floor on which the cows lie. 

A four-inch tliickness of concrete is sufficient. The usual proportion 
of materials are 1 part of cement, 2Yi parts of sand and 5 parts of crushed 
stone by measure. Screened gravel may be substituted for the stone, or 
good bank gravel may be used unscreened. Screening is to be preferred, 
unless the proportion of fine material and gravel is about 1 to 2. A bag of 
cement is equal to 1 cubic foot. The concrete should be laid in sections, 
similar to the manner of constructing walks. This provides for seams at 
reasonable intervals and allows for shrinkage without cracking the cement. 
Lighting.— Plenty of light is essential in all portions of a stable where 
animals are kept or work is performed. Its absence is not only incon- 
venient, but allows the unobserved accumulation of dust and bacteria. 

Not only should there be good light, but 
direct sunshine should also be admitted as 
much as possible on account of its sanitary 
effect. The size and location of the win- 
dows should permit an abundance of both 
light and sunshine and provide as great a 
distribution of the latter as possible. North 
and south windows are not as effective in 
this respect as those on the east and west. 
Windows in cow stables should be screened 
against flies. 

Ventilation. — Fresh air is as essential 
to the health cf cows as it is to man. It 
is necessary to have much better ventilation 
in cow stables than in dwellings, because 
[of the number of animals within a given 
space and the rapidity with which the air becomes charged with carbon 
dioxide and moisture from the lungs of the cows. Not only is ventilation 
necessary for this reason, but it also sets up currents of air that convey 
dust and bacteria from the barn. 

The King system of ventilation is the one generally used in bains. 
It is described in the chapter on "Farm Sanitation.' 

Professor King, in his book on Ventilation says, "A cow requires six 
full pails of pure air each minute of the day and consumes twice the weight 
of air that she does of food and water combined." This gives a basis 
for calculating the volume of air required daily by each cow, and is used 
in determining the number and size of ventilating flues necessary. 

Conveniences. — The tendency of the times is toward the saving of 
labor. This should be seriously considered in connection with the arrange- 
ment of the stable and the conveniences that should be therein. ( 'anvas 
extensions to both hay chutes and ventilators are convenient. The former 




Cross-section, Showing Venti- 
lation and Stable Floor of 
Concrete. 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 147 

prevents the distribution of dust from hay while feeding. These exten- 
sions for both hay chutes and ventilators may be folded and hung against 
the wall or ceiling so as not to interfere with the stable work. 

Closets for harness should be provided. They will prove economical 
in keeping the harness clean and preserving it. In some instances, a 
small room in which to hang, clean and repair harness is advantageous. 

It will pay to have water delivered by pipes directly to the barn. If 
it has considerable pressure, a hose can be used in washing the walls and 




Ensilage Cutter and Filler. 1 



floor of the cow stable. This will necessitate a drainage pipe leading from 
the stable floor to a suitable outlet. 

Silos. — Silos have come into quite general use as a means of storing 
roughage for cows, steers and sheep. The product of an acre of land can 
be stored in less space when made into silage than when cured in any 
other way. Hay stored in the mow will take up about three times the 
space and cornfodder about five times the space of the same quantity of 
food material placed in the silo 

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago. 



1 Is 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Corn can be made into silage at less cost than when cured as fodder. 
There is not only a saving of time, but there is less waste of the crop and 
it goes to the feed trough in a succulent and more digestible condition 
than when dry. Crops may be put into the silo under weather conditions 
that will not make possible the harvesting for putting in the shock or mow. 
The silo enables the farmer to keep more stock on a given area of land, 
and is a step in the direction of greater intensity. 

There are many forms of silos, but the essential of a good silo is a 
strong, durable, tight wall that will permit of thorough settling of the 
stored material. Silos of the circular form are preferred. The greater 
the depth, the more compactly the material settles, the better it keeps 
and the larger the quantity that may be stored in a unit of capacity. The 
monolithic concrete silo is coming into extensive use. It is fireproof, and 
when properly constructed should last many years. Its first cost is :i 
little greater than a good wooden silo, but it should prove cheaper in 
the long run. Concrete blocks and tiles are also used for silos and have 
proven both satisfactory and durable. 

The size of the silo will depend on the number of stock to be fed out 
of it and the length of the feeding period. In northern latitudes this 
period is seldom less than 200 days. It is usual to feed cows 30 to 40 
pounds of silage daily. On the above-mentioned basis, 3 to 4 tons per 
animal will be required. These figures give a rough basis for calculating 
the amount of silage required and the capacity of the silo to construct. 
It is estimated that there should be fed from the surface of the silage about 
two inches daily in order to prevent the material spoiling. A feeding 
period of 200 days would, therefore, call for a silo 400 inches in depth, 
or about 35 feet deep. Silos are often constructed to a greater depth. 
The following table gives the height and inside diameter of silos in feet, 
together with the capacity of silage in tons. This will be helpful in connec- 
tion with determining the size to build. 









IllMlli' 


Diameter of Silo. 






Height of Silo, 
feet. 


10 Feet. 


12 Feet. 


14 Feet. 


I.". Feet. 


16 Feet. 


18 Feet 


20 Feet. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Ton 


20 


26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
1.-, 
17 
19 
51 


38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
52 
55 
58 
61 
64 
68 
70 
73 


51 

55 
59 
62 
66 
70 
74 
78 
83 
88 
93 
96 
101 


59 
63 

67 
72 
76 
81 
85 
90 
95 
100 
105 

no 

115 


67 

72 
77 
82 
87 
90 
97 
103 
10S 

11 1 

119 
1 25 
131 


85 
91 
-.17 
103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
1 11 
151 
1 58 
166 


105 


21 


112 


22 


120 


23 


1 28 


24 . 


135 


25 


143 


26 


152 


27 


160 


28 


169 


•_>(l 


178 


30 


187 


:;i 


195 


32 


205 







FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 



149 



It should be borne in mind that the deeper the silo the more compact 
the silage becomes and the greater the weight per cubic foot. In silos of 
ordinary depth the weight ranges from 30 to 50 pounds per cubic foot, 
depending on the position in the silo. On an average, a cow requires 
one cubic foot of silage daily. 

Details concerning the construction of different forms of silos may 
be secured from bulletins issued by a number of state experiment stations 
and also by the manufacturers of cement. 

OUT-BUILDINGS 

The out-buildings of the farmstead, consisting of sheds, cribs, milk 
house, pig houses, poultry houses and other minor buildings, should be 




A Good Implement Shed. 1 



grouped with "reference to accessibility and appearance. It is worth 
while in this connection to consider the possibility of fire and fire protection. 
The Implement House. — The first essentials of a good implement 
house are a good, dry floor and a roof and walls that will keep out rain 
and snow. It should have sufficient strength to withstand winds, ample 
size for the storage of all machinery without taking much of it apart and 
freedom from interior posts or obstructions. Such a building need not 
be expensive. In fact, it should not be expensive if it is to prove a profit- 
able investment. If a comfortable workshop is provided in one end of 
it where odd jobs of repairing can be done and where a stove can be installed 
so much the better. Such a provision encourages the proper repair and 
care of the tools and makes this work possible in weather unsuited to 
outside work. 



1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Des Moines, Iowa. 



150 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



The building should have several wide, rolling doors, and in most 
instances should be provided with eave-troughs to conduct the water 
away from its foundation. 

Corn Cribs. — The essentials of a good corn crib are a good foundation 
and a good roof, together with ample capacity and convenience for filling 
and emptying it To this might be added protection of grain from the rav- 
ages of vermin, especially rats and mice. Where much corn is grown, 
the double crib is preferred. The usual width of each crib is eight feet and 
the length is made to conform to the amount of corn raised. The advan- 
tage of the double crib is that one or more loads may be driven under 
shelter and unloaded in stormy weather or at leisure. The driveway, after 
husking time, may be utilized for storing farm wagons or farm implements. 
Since corn dumps and elevators have come into quite 
general use, corn cribs are constructed much taller than 
formerly. This is economical, since the capacity is materi- 
ally increased without enlarging either the foundation or 
the roof, which are the most costly parts of the structure. 




Plan of Concrete Foundation for Corn Crib. 1 

A— 2 " x 6 " j oist . B— 2 " x 6 " sill. C— Anchor bolt . D— Terra 
cotta ventilator. E — Concrete. F— Broken stone. 

Extending the posts and walls from four to eight feet adds very little 
to the cost in proportion to the increased capacity. 

Concrete floors are coming into general use for corn cribs. These 
are so constructed as to afford no harbors for rats and mice. It is neces- 
sary to provide against dampness in such floors by thorough drainage 
about the walls or by building them up on a considerable thickness oi 
coarsely broken stone. It is also advisable to provide floor ventilation 
by the use of hollow terra cotta tiles laid in the concrete. The accom- 
panying sketch shows the construction of such a floor. It will be noted 
that bolts % inch in diameter are set in the concrete t<> a depth of 1 inches, 
a 3-inch washer being on the inserted end. The thread end should project 
above the concrete sufficient to pass through a 2-inch sill and allow a 
good washer and tap to be attached. The sill fastened in this way holds 
the crib secure to its foundation. 



1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Des Moines. Iowa. 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 



151 



Hog Houses. — The profitable production of swine demands dry, 
sanitary, comfortable housing. Warmth is also essential, especially at 
the time of farrowing. Early pig production is impossible without warm 
shelter. The hog house should be conveniently located, but should take an 
inconspicuous position in the group of farm buildings. Whether the house 
is stationary or movable, it should be well ventilated and admit plenty 
of sunlight. The movable type of hog house is coming into quite general 
use, and has several advantages over the stationary one. In case of disease 
the houses may be disin- 
fected and moved to new 
lots, thus escaping the 
infected ones. They are 
also very convenient 
where pasture is depended 
upon and is changed from 
year to year. To be 
serviceable, such houses 
should be suited to all 
seasons of the year. 
During the summer they 
should be open and afford 
shade. During the win- 
ter or the farrowing season 
they should be closed and 
still admit direct sunlight. 
The accompanying illus- 
trations show two views of 
the Iowa gable roof hog 
house. This house meets 
the requirements named. 

A bill of material 
and estimate of cost of 
this type of individual 
house is as follows: 




Interior of Double Corn Crib. 1 



BILL OF MATERIAL AND ESTIMATE OF COST.* 
The Iowa Gable Roof House. 

1 piece 4" x 4" x 16' for runner, fir, 21| board feet, at $55 per M $1.17 

4 pieces 2" x 12" x 12' for floor, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 96 board feet, at 

$30 per M 2 . 88 

1 piece 2" x 4" x 8' for floor stiff eners, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 5\ board feet, 

at $28 per M 15 

3 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' for rafters, No. 1 white or yellow pine 

1 piece 2" x 4" x 8' for girt, No. 1 white or yellow pine 

1 piece 2" x 4" x 10' for ridge, No. 1 white or yellow pine 

2 pieces 2" x 4" x 10' for plates, No. 1 white or yellow pine , , 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa, 
- Courtesy of Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, 

4Z 



152 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

2 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' for studs,* No. 1 white or yellow pine 

2 pieces 2" x 4" x 10' for studs,* No. 1 white or yellow pine 

2 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' for fender, No. 1 white or yellow pine 

1 piece 2" x 4" x 10' for fender, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 82 § board feet, at 

$28 per M $2. 32 

1 piece 1 "x4"xl2'for brace, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 4 board feet, at $30 per M .12 
5 pieces 1" x 10" x 16' shiplap for ends and sides, No. 1 white or yellow pine*. . 

I piece 1 " x 8" x 8' No. 1 white or yellow pine 

3 pieces 1" x 10" x 10' No. 1 white or yellow pine, 97 board feet, at $30 per M 2.91 

II pieces 1" x 10" x 8' shiplap for roof, white or yellow pine, 72| board feet, at 

$30 per M 2.21 

3 pieces 1" x 4" x 16' for bottoms, 16 board feet, at $30 per M 48 

12 eye-bolts at 5 cents 60 

8 U-bolts at 8 cents. 64 

5 pairs 12-inch strap hinges at 22 cents 1 . 10 

1 pair 8-inch strap hinges at 18 cents 18 

1 door pull 10 

1 wire for holding door open 10 

12.5 pounds nails at 4 cents 50 

0.6 gallon to paint double coat 150 square feet, at $2 gallon 1 .20 

Cost of material $16.66 

Labor, 15 hours at 25 cents 3 . 75 

Total cost $20.41 

Further details of this and other forms of movable hog houses may 
be found in Bulletin 152, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. 

Poultry Houses. — The poultry house should be well lighted and ven- 
tilated. The walls should have only one thickness of boards. Double 
walls afford a harboring place for lice. In cold climates, the boards may 
be covered on the outside with prepared roofing. This will make a fairly 
warm house. Chickens can stand much cold if protected from drafts. 
The interior walls should be smooth and occasionally whitewashed. Good 
perches should be supported from the rafters and in such a way as to 
prevent harboring places for lice. A concrete floor is durable, sanitary 
and easily cleaned. Ventilation may be provided by substituting a muslin- 
covered frame for one or more of the windows. These may be hinged 
at the top so as to be swung up out of the way in warm weather. Perches 
should be at least twelve inches apart and on the same level, otherwise, 
there will be crowding on the higher perches. A good dropping board 
should be beneath the perches, and the droppings should be frequently 
removed with a hoe or scraper. The perches should be in the warmest 
and lightest part of the house. The nests should be removable and should 
rest on supports in the darkest portion of the house. If the dropping 
board is not too low, some of the nests may be beneath it. 

Milk Houses. — No matter what type of dairying the farmer follows, 
if he has many cows, a milk or dairy house becomes a necessity. Milk 
is easily contaminated by dust and by absorbing odors. It should, there- 
fore, be kept in a pure, clean place. The milk house should not open 

* If the sides of the bouse arc built higher than specified to allow of large doorway for tall swine, make 
due additions in lumber, 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 



153 



directly into the cow stable. The size and equipment of the house will 
depend on the amount of milk and the manner of disposing of it. When 
the milk is made into butter or cheese, the size of the house should be 
sufficient for the proper installation of the separator, churn, butter worker 
and for the storage 
of utensils and 
butter. If steam 
or gasoline power 
is used, it should 
be located outside 
and a shaft or 
steam pipe extend 
into the dairy- 
house. Steam has 
the advantage of 
affording heat for 
warming water 
and for sterilizing 
utensils. 

The walls of the 
building should be 
constructed with 
reference to keep- 
ing as uniform a 
temperature as pos- 
sible. These may- 
be of concrete. 
The floors should 
always be of con- 
crete. 

Ice Houses. — 
Ice is essential to 
the proper hand- 
ling of milk dur- 
ing the summer 
months. Every 
dairy farm should 
have an ice house. 
In good-sized 
dairies a thousand 

pounds of ice per cow yearly is required to cool the milk. In smaller 
dairies the waste would be greater and proportionately more per cow 
would be required. 

So far as possible the ice house should be located in the shade. It 
should have double walls and be sufficiently large to store the required 

i Courtesy of Agricultural Experiment Station. 




Two Views op Iowa Gable Roof Hog House. 1 



154 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



amount of ice and allow a space of twelve inches between the walls and 
ice, which should be filled with sawdust or other non-conducting material. 
Fifty cubic feet should be allowed for each ton of stored ice. The doors 
should close tightly to exclude air. Windows are unnecessary. A venti- 
lator should be provided at the roof to allow the escape of vapors. 

Wooden structures, because of the continual dampness of the wood, 
are short lived. For this reason ice houses of concrete blocks or hollow 
tile are preferable. They keep the ice well and are much more durable 
than wood. 

Roofing. — Wooden shingles have long been the chief roofing material. 
They embody lightness, ease of construction, good appearance and, when 
made of the right kind of wood and properly treated or painted, are reason- 
ably durable. It is 
folly to put thirty- 
year shingles on 
with five-year 
nails. The new 
process nails rust 
out more quickly 
than the type 
made in former 
years. It is, 
therefore, recom- 
mended that good 
galvanized wire 
nails be always 
used for shingles 
of any material 
that is reasonably 
durable. 

Slate and tile 
roofing are much 
heavier than wood 
shingles, but when of good quality are more durable and generally of better 
appearance. They have the advantage of affording fire protection from 
sparks and cinders falling on the roof. Any kind of shingles demands a 
roof of ample pitch to make them durable. If the roof is too il.it, more 
water is absorbed, snow is held, and consequently decay occurs more 
rapidly. 

There is now on the market prepared roofing of many types, much 
of which is cheaper and more easily placed in position than shite, tile or 
shingles. The type of building and its permanence should in large measure 
determine the kind of shingle. Heavy, expensive roofing is out of place 
on ;i cheap, temporary building. 




A Concrete Block Ice House. 1 



• Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Fanner, Philadelphia, 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 



155 



Use of Concrete. — Concrete is durable, easily cleaned, simple of 
construction and finds many good uses on the farm. It makes excellent 
foundation for all kinds of buildings, is well suited for silos, outside cellars, 
water troughs, walks, feeding floors and stable floors. The essential in 
concrete constructions consists in the use of clean sand and gravel, mixed 
in the proper proportions with a good quality of cement. The greater 
the strength required and the more impervious the structure is to be, the 
larger should be the proportion of cement. For building foundations 
and walks, the 1 : 2^ : 5 mixture is used. Where more strength is required 
the 1:2:4 mixture is preferred. Strength is further increased by iron 
or steel reinforce- 
ment. All over- 
head work — water 
tanks, silos, bridges, 
etc.— calls for rein- 
forcement, the ex- 
tent of which will 
be determined by 
the strain to which 
the structure is to 
be subjected. The 
reinforcing material 
should be placed 
where it will be 
mosteffective. Con- 
crete is most dura- 
ble if allowed to dry 
slowly. It should 
never freeze until 
thoroughly dry. 

Watering 
troughs should have 

thick walls and the sides and ends should be sloped on the inside to lessen 
the danger of bursting by freezing water. It is safest to provide a means 
of draining the water off during cold periods. The accompanying sketch 
shows the foundation, drainage pipe, forms and reinforcement necessary 
in the construction of a concrete water tank. 

Both wooden and metal forms are used. The latter are preferable in 
the construction of silos and round water tanks. Metal forms, when used 
repeatedly, are cheaper than wooden ones. They leave a smoother concrete 
surface than wooden forms. The latter should be soaped or greased on 
the surface next to the concrete to prevent the material sticking to the 
forms. Wooden forms should also be sprinkled with water before being 
filled with concrete, lest they absorb water from the mixture too rapidly. 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia. 




How to Construct a Concrete Water Tank. 1 



156 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



The concrete materials should be thoroughly mixed and enough water 
used so that the mixture will flow slowly. The smaller the forms into 
which it is placed, the more liquid it should be. Where much work is to 

be done, mechanical mixers facilitate the work and do it more thoroughly 
than can be done by hand. In the absence of a mechanical mixer, a 
strong, tight board platform, about 8 by 10 feel in dimension, is convenient 
on which to do the mixing. A square-pointed shovel, a rake and two or 
more hoes may be advantageously used in mixing the material. If run- 
ning water is not available, water in barrels or a tank should be convenient 
to the mixing board. The cement usually comes in bags of 100 pounds 
each, equal to one cubic foot. Bottomless boxes for measuring sand and 
gravel are most convenient. They should be constructed of a size suitable 
for a bag or two-bag mixture of the proportions desired. 

One desiring to build should first estimate the cubic space to be 
occupied by concrete. This known, the amounts of sand, gravel and 

cement can be easily esti- 
mated. Fcr a 1:2:4 for- 
mula, the cement required 
will equal .058 times the cubic 
feet in the structure. For the 
1 : 2^2 : ' r > formula, it will be 
.048 times the cubic feet in 
the structure. The amounts 
of sand and gravel will be 
relatively as much more than 
the cement as the formula 

specifies. 

Plans and specifications 

for structures of different 

kinds may be obtained from 

any cement manufacturing company, as well as from bulletins of many 

of the state experiment stations and from the United States Department 

of Agriculture. 

Lightning Rods.- The larger buildings of the farm group should 
be protected with lightning rods. The building most likely to be struck 
by lightning is the barn. Observations show that many barns with entire 
contents have been burned as the result of lightning. The greatesi danger 
occurs for one or two months immediately after filling the mows with ha\ . 
This is due to the accumulation of moisture from the newly-made hay. 
This moisture fills the peak of the loft, often escaping through the cupola, 
and increases the conductivity of the air. and in case of a passing thunder- 
storm attracts the lightning. 

Investigations during recent years by insurance companies show that 
properly installed lightning rods are quite effective as protection against. 

1 From Fanners' Bulletin 307 • >f Agriculture. 




A "T" Connection for Heavy Wire 
Lightning Rods. 1 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 157 

lightning. Eight years' investigations in Iowa show $4000 worth of dam- 
age done to rodded buildings as compared with $340,000 damage to 
buildings having no rods. In Canada and Michigan investigations show 
similar results. Professor Day, of the Ontario Agricultural College, states 
that out of $1000 worth of damage by lightning to unrodded buildings, 
$999 would be saved if the buildings were properly rodded. 

Effective lightning rods for a barn may be installed without much 
cost. The expensive copper rodding and elaborate system of points and 
insulators formerly used by lightning rod companies are not necessary. 
The essentials of a rodding system are metal rods of any good conducting 
material, sufficiently large to carry a heavy charge of lightning. These 
should have good contact with moist earth at all times. It is, therefore, 
well to have the lower ends buried to a depth of three feet or more. On 
the ends should be a coil at least a foot in diameter. The rods should 
extend one up each side of the building and over the roof, connecting 
with a horizontal rod extending along the entire length of the ridge. There 
should be perpendicular extensions to the horizontal ridge wire at intervals 
of 15 to 20 feet. These need not be more than 18 inches in length and 
should be sharpened at the upper end. A terminal point should extend 
above each cupola, ventilator and chimney on the structure. 

No. 3 and No. 4 double galvanized iron telegraph wires make good 
lightning conductors. The wire may be fastened directly to the building 
by staples or by means of small wooden blocks and screw eyes. Blocks 
\}/2 inches thick, 2^ inches wide and 4 inches long may be nailed to the 
side of the buildings and roof at intervals of ten feet or less. The wire can 
be passed through the eyes screwed into these blocks. The vertical wires 
and terminals may be connected with the horizontal ridge wire by means 
of galvanized T's. 

The quality and type of rodding system should conform to the nature 
and character of the building. An attractive system of rodding adds 
much to the appearance of the building. 

Fences and Gates. — The need for farm fences is probably less than 
formerly. The chief purposes are for the confinement of stock and poultry 
and for ornamentation. The extensive use of farm machinery and the 
adoption of systematic crop rotation have reduced the number of fields 
on the average farm. The increase in the price of land has reduced the 
acreage used as pasture. As a rule, highway fences, except where pastures 
border the road, may be omitted. Nothing mars the appearance of a 
farm more than an untidy fence grown up with weeds. The farmer is 
benefited and the appearance of the farm improved if unsightly fences 
are removed and the fields cropped to the border of the road. 

The type of fence selected depends much on the service to be rendered. 
A hog-tight fence is cheapest and most effective when constructed of 
well-galvanized woven wire. The posts should not be too far apart and 
the bottom wire should be fastened close to the ground at intervals suffi- 



158 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

ciently frequent to prevent hogs from springing it and crawling beneath. 
Woven wire 36 inches high is sufficient to turn the hogs. If the fenced 
field is to be used for cattle or horses, two barbed wires may be placed 
above the woven wire. With a little additional expense, a fence 48 or 52 
inches high may be secured which will turn all kinds of stock. A single 
strand of barbed wire, three inches above the top of the woven wire will 
prevent horses reaching over and stretching the ten re. 

The top wire of a 48 or 52-inch fence should be of No. 9 wire. Wires 
below this may be of No. 10 or No. 11 material. Perpendicular wires 
are sometimes even smaller. The lighter wires are less durable and more 
easily stretched and broken; consequently, it is economy to pay more for 
the fence and secure a heavier wire. This is especially true if the fence 
is to be permanent. For temporary fences to be moved from time to 
time, the lighter wire is more easily handled and stretched. 

Stone fences, plank fences and hedge fences, once thought desirable, 
are now seldom advisable and will not be discussed. 

Wooden posts will probably continue to be extensively used, but are 
being replaced to some extent by metal posts and reinforced concrete 
posts. Metal posts should be set in concrete. Both metal and concrete 
are somewhat more expensive then wooden posts and have not been used 
sufficiently long to determine extent of their durability. Much greater 
durability is claimed for them than for wooden posts. The chief advantage 
of the wooden posts is in the ease with which the wire may be fastened 
to them. 

Red cedar posts are to be preferred, chiefly because of their straight- 
ness and long durability. Next to red cedar comes the black or yellow 
locust, catalpa and white oak. Many other kinds of wood may be used. 
The kind to select depends chiefly on the cost, together with the feasibility 
and cost of treating the posts to increase their durability. For permanent 
fences, the best posts are usually the cheapest. Posts of short duration 
must be replaced frequently, and this adds much to the upkeep cost of 
the fence. 

It generally pays to treat the bottom ends of posts with creosote. 
The material for this purpose will cost from four to eight cents a post, 
depending on size. The outfit for treating consists of a metal tank suffi- 
ciently large to hold a number of posts, under which a fire may be built 
and the creosote heated to about 220° F. The well-seasoned posts should 
remain in the solution two or three hours, after which they are put into 
cold creosote for an hour or two. Only the lower three feet of the posts 
need be treated. Posts decay most rapidly at or just beneath the surface 
of the soil. Such treatment is claimed to add ten to fifteen years to the 
usefulness of ordinary soft wood posts. 

Every farmer should have a wood lot that will supply posts for the 
farm. Trees cut for posts should be cut the last of July or during August. 
Trees felled at this time need not be cut into posts at once. In fact, it 



FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 



159 



is an advantage to let them lie until the leaves draw the water from the 
sap, thus leaving the starch to preserve the wood. At a convenient season 
the trees may be cut into posts and the posts set on end to further cure. 
Posts cut in this way last much longer than when the trees are cut in 
the winter or spring. 

The interval between posts in fence construction depends on the 
size of the posts, the depth to which they can be conveniently set, the 
weight or strength of the wire and the strain to which it will be subjected. 




A Good Type op Farm Fence. 1 



It will often prove economical to alternate small posts with large ones. 
With exceptionally good strong posts, the intervals may be as much as 
from 25 to 30 feet. The usual distance, however, will be from 15 to 
20 feet. 

Woven wire should be stapled to the posts so that the wire will move 
freely beneath the staple. With barbed wire the staples may be driven 
tightly so as to prevent the wire from slipping. The length of the staples 
used and the number per post depend on the hardness of the post and 
the number of wires. With woven wire it will usually be sufficient to 
staple alternate wires at each post, although the top and bottom wire 
should be stapled at every post. When so stapled, the staples should 

1 Courtesy of The American Steel and Wire Co. 



L60 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

alternate on the intermediate wires. For example, the second wire from 
the top should be stapled to the first, third and fifth post, while the third 
wire should be stapled to the second, fourth and sixth post, etc. 

Woven wire calls for the strongest and best braced end and corner 
posts. This permits stretching the wire tightly, thus increasing its effi- 
ciency. These posts should be set to a depth of four feet in the ground, 
have cross pieces on the bottom to prevenl them pulling up and be securely 
braced and anchored as shown on preceding page. 

It pays to provide substantial, durable gates of light material that 
may be easily opened and closed. The style of gate should conform to 
the fence. There are on the market comparatively cheap, tubular, framed 
woven-wire gates that are light, neat and durable. They may be easily 
attached to wooden posts. If wooden gates are preferred, 1 x 4-inch 
material, well braced, is generally better than heavier material. The 
weight and strength of material, however, will depend on the strain to 
which the gate is likely to subjected. 

REFERENCES 

"Successful Houses and How to Build Them." White. 

"Farm Structures." Ekblaw. 

"The Care of a House." Clark. 

South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 154. "Pit Silo." 

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 

207. "Ice Cold Storage on the Farm: Bow In Provide." 

220. "Lightning Rods: How to Install on Farm Buildings." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

367. "Lightning and Lightning Conductors.'*' 

387. "Preservative Treatment of Farm Timber." 

403. "Construction of Concrete Fence Posts." 

405. "Cement Silos." 

438. "Hog Houses." 

457. "Reinforced Brick Silos." 

461. "The Use of Concrete on the Farm." 

469. "The Plaster Silo." 

474. "Use of Paint on the Farm." 

475. "Ice Houses." 

574. "Poultry House Construction." 

589. "Home-Made Silos." 

623. "Ice Houses and Their Use on the Dairy Farm." 



CHAPTER 10 

Farm Machinery and Implements 

During the past century the invention and introduction of farm ma- 
chinery and implements has almost revolutionized methods of farming. The 
great change from the simplest of tools to the almost perfect farm machines 
has had a marked effect upon the life of the farmer. It has shortened his 
hours of labor, increased his efficiency and brought to him better wages. 
It has reduced the necessity of brute strength and increased the demand 




A Good Type of Walking Plow. 1 



for a better developed intellect. Mechanical ability is now an essential 
in farming. 

Advantages of Farm Machinery. — Farm machinery has decreased the 
percentage of people living upon farms in North America. In 1800, 97 per 
cent of the people lived on farms. In 1850 this proportion had decreased 
to 90 per cent. In 1900 it was 36 per cent and is now about 33 per cent. 
At the present time one-third of our population produces the bulk of food 
supplies and the raw materials for clothing. Consequently the remaining 
two-thirds are free to engage in constructive work for the advancement of 
the race. 

This decrease in the proportion of people on farms has been accom- 
panied by a great increase in production per capita. In 1800 in the United 

1 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From "Soils," by Fletcher. 

(161) 



162 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



States 5.5 bushels of wheat were produced per capita. In 1850 it had fallen 
to 4.4. About this time improved harvesting and threshing machinery was 
developed and the production per capita increased rapidly. In 1880 it 
was 9.16 bushels per capita, and in 1915 it was 10 bushels per capita. 

Although the wage of farm labor has doubled or trebled, the cost of 
production has decreased. The amount of labor required to produce a 
bushel of wheat by hand implements was a little over three hours. 
Improved machinery has reduced it to less than ten minutes. 

Machinery has also improved the quality of farm products. Short- 
ening the time of operations enables the farmer to plant his crops at the 

proper time, thus 
insuring full ma- 
turity. Shorten- 
ing the harvesting 
period enables 
him to gather the 
crop when fully 
matured and with 
the minimum loss. 
Tillage Ma- 
chinery. — The 
plow takes first 
rank in tillage im- 
plements. It is 
estimated that 
more power is 
required to plow 
the fields of North 
America than is 
used in all the fac- 
tories. While the 
plow is a very old 

implement, the steel plow, the sulky plow and the disk plow are implements 
of recent development. These are modified in form and construction to 
adapt them to different kinds of soil and the power available for doing the 
work. The mold-board plow is most universally used. It should be highly 
polished and kept reasonably sharp in order to perform its work with the 
minimum power. Rolling coulters, standing coulters and jointers are 
attached to more completely cover trash, prevent clogging or reduce the 
draft. 

Disk plows are adapted to a dry soil and to land heavily covered with 
vegetation. They have been recently modified so that one disk follows 
the other in such a way that it increases the depth of plowing to 12 or 14 
inches and mixes the subsoil with the surface soil. 




One Type of Sulky Plow. 1 



'Courtesy of The Jancsvillc Machine Company, Janesville, Wis. 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 1G3 




An Adjustable Smoothing Harrow. 1 

Mold-board plows are made in sizes ranging from 6 inches to 18 inches. 
The 12 and 14-inch sizes usually prevail. Where larger plows are needed 
gang plows are substituted. A gang plow of two 12-inch bottoms will turn 
25 to 26 inches of soil at one passage of the plow and generally requires four 
good horses. It is essential to have the center of draft fall directly back of 
the center of the team, otherwise there will be a side draft that will increase 




Spring-Toothed Harrow. 1 



'Courtegy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111. 



164 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



the draft of the plow. This necessitates adjusting the team, and if five 
horses are used better results will be seemed by placing two in the lead and 
three in the rear, rather than five abreast. 

Next in importance to the plow comes the harrow. The leading forms 
of harrows are the smoothing harrow, the spring-toothed harrow and the disk 
harrow. There are a number of forms and many makes of each. The steel- 
frame smoothing harroAv, made in moderate sized sections, with levers to 
adjust the angle of the teeth, is most efficient. The teeth should be sharp 




Double Disk Harrow. 1 



in order to do effective work. They should be held in place by clamps that 
do not easily loosen. When one side of the teeth is badly worn, they may 
be turned half way around and :t new surface brought into use. 

The spring-tool lied harrow is made with bot h wooden ami steel frames. 
The better forms also have either adjustable runners or wheels to regulate 
the depth of harrowing and to hold the teeth out of the ground in passing 
from one field to and her. Without these adjustments, the harrow may be 
turned upside-down when taken from shed to fields or from one field to 

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, '11. 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 165' 

another. This form of harrow is adapted to stony land, for the destruction 
of weeds, for a thorough loosening of the soil and for covering broadcasted 
seeds rather deeply. 

Disk harrows are made in two forms: the full disk and the cutaway 
disk. The former is most extensively used, while the latter is best adapted 
to stony land and for light work. Double disks frequently combine both 
forms. They provide for the use of large teams and increased rapidity of 
work without increasing man labor. Disks of the several forms are used, 
especially for pulverizing the soil. They should generally be followed with 
a smoothing harrow. Disks are generally best adapted for preparing the 











A Corrugated Roller. 1 



seed-bed on fall plowing or early spring plowing. They are also extensively 
used in preparing corn land for the seeding of spring oats without plowing. 
The disks of these harrows should be kept sharp to do effective work. This 
is especially true when there is trash on the surface of the soil. The depth 
of disking is adjusted by the angle at which the disks are set. Levers are 
provided for setting at different angles. A disk truck reduces the weight 
on the horses' necks, and is generally advised. 

On most farms a combination of the three forms of harrows above 
mentioned is advantageous. 

Under this heading should also be mentioned the roller and the drag. 
The chief purpose of the former is to compact the soil and crush clods. 

1 Courtesy of The Dunham Company, Berea, Ohio. From pamphlet "Soil Sense." 



1G6 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Seldom should the soil be rolled, except when very dry. Under these condi- 
tions it brings the moist ore nearer the surface and helps to germinate newly 
planted seed. The roller is most frequently used in preparing the soil for 
seeding winter wheat. Rollers of huge diameter compact the surface soil 
without much pulverizing effect. Those of smaller diameter have more 
pulverizing effect. 

The drag or planker is a cheap implement, usually home-made. It 
is generally constructed of four 8 or 10-inch planks. These are fastened 
together with two or three cross pieces, to which the planks are securely 
nailed or bolted in such a way that one plank overlaps the next about 
one inch. The width may vary from eight to twelve feet. Such a drag 
requires two or three horses, depending on length. For light work it 
may be loaded with stones or bags of earth. For heavier work the 
operator may ride upon it. The drag pulverizes the surface soil, fills 

up depressions and levels the 
surface. It is most effective 
when the surface soil is rather 
dry. 

Cultivators. — There are 
numerous forms of cultivators 
requiring from one to four 
horses, depending on size. 
These are used for many of 
the truck crops, for orchards 
and for general farm intertilled 
crops such as corn, cotton, 
cane, potatoes, etc. Cultiva- 
tors are made both for riding 
and walking. The number and form of the shovels are determined by 
the crop to be cultivated and the character of the soil. The size and 
prevalence of weeds and grass are also determining factors. The large 
single and double shovels formerly used have largely given place to 
smaller shovels, disks and sweeps. The small shovels and sweeps are 
designed for shallow tillage, and are extensively used for both corn and 
cotton. Such cultivators do little damage to the loots of the crop, make 
an effective soil mulch, and, if used in the nick of time, destroy all small 
weeds. 

The disk cultivator is better suited for larger weeds and for throw- 
ing the earth either to or from the plants. 

Numerous forms of hand cultivators are available for garden work. 
There are also several forms of one-horse cultivators extensively used on 
truck farms. 

The weeder consists of numerous flexible teeth and is designed to 
break the soil crust and destroy very Bmall weeds when the plants to be 

1 Courtesy of Oraoge-Judd Company, V Y. From 1 rops," by Hunt and Burkett 




A Home-made Planker. 1 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 167 

tilled are small. A variety of tillage implements is advantageous, and 
the selection should meet the needs of the owner. 

Seeding Machines. — Until within the last century much of the 
sowing and planting of seeds was done by hand. Recently the broad- 
cast seeder has taken the place of broadcasting by hand, and the drill 
and planter have supplanted hand planting of seeds either in hills or rows. 
The end-gate seeder, used extensively for seeding oats, and the knapsack 
seeders, used for grasses and clovers, are an improvement over hand 
seeding, but are subject to much the same defects as hand seeding. The 
speed of the distributor, the weight of the seed and the condition of the 



A Much Used Form of Corn Cultivator. 1 

wind all affect the distance seed will be thrown. Great care is, there- 
fore, necessary in the spacing of the passages back and forth across the 
field in order to avoid uneven seeding. 

Broadcast seeders with long hoppers carried on two wheels give 
much better results than the sorts above mentioned. They are provided 
either with the agitator feed or the force feed. The latter is the more 
satisfactory. The former has a revolving agitator that passes over each 
opening from which seed issues and prevents stoppage. The rate of seed- 
ing is controlled by adjusting the size of the openings in the bottoms of 
the hoppers. The seed either falls on a vibrating board or passes through 

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111, 
46 



168 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



fan-shaped spouts that distribute it evenly over the ground. The wheel- 
barrow seeder used for grasses and clovers has the same arrangement, but 
is usually without the vibrating board or spouts. 

Seeders of the same form, provided with a force feed, are an si satis- 
factory. The force feed can be set to seed at any desired rate and makes 
uniformity reasonably certain. 

Broadcast seeders arc sometimes attached to disk harrows. The 
seed may be sown either in front of or behind the disks. In one case it 
will be rather deeply covered; in the other it will lie on top of the ground 
and the disk must he followed with a harrow to cover the seed. 

Grain drills came into use to some extent in England soon after 
1731, at which time Jethro lull advocated a system of seeding and tillage 

called "Horse Hoeing 
Husbandry." In the 
United States drills 
worthy of mention 
were not perfected 
until after 1840. 
Drills are more expen- 
sive than seeders, are 
heavier of draft and 
seed more slowly. As 
they have become per- 
fected they have dis- 
placed broadcast 
seeders to a large 
extent. The chief ad- 
vantage lies in a uni- 
form depth of planting 
that may be controlled 
to suit the kind of seed 
and the condition of the soil. This insures more perfect germination and 
requires less seed than when broadcasted. Nearly all wheat is now drilled, 
and the best farmers also drill oats, rye and barley. Even alfalfa and the 
clovers are now being drilled with good results. 

There are now several forms of furrow openers for drills. The hoe 
drill was the first to be developed. It has good penetration and works 
well on clean land, but clogs badly in trash. The shoe drill was next 
to be developed, but has qo1 been so extensively used as the hoe. Disk 
furrow openers are of more recent use and both single and double disks 
are used. They are especially good in trashy ground. Press wheels are 
sometimes provided to follow the disks and compact the soil over the 
seed. Covering chains are also used, their sole purpose being to insure 
Covering all of the seed. The several forms of furrow openers are provided 
1 Courtesy of Low ■ r School Report. 




A YVheelbakuow Seeder ix Operation. 1 
An even distribution of grass seed is secured by its use 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 169 

with a tube through which the grain passes, and these are connected 
with the seed box by flexible tubes either of rubber or of steel ribbon. 
Spaces between furrow openers vary from 6 to 9 inches, 7 inches being 
the most common distance. 

Drills are provided with both fertilizer and grass-seed attachments 
if desired. 

The drill compels the farmer to put his land in good condition before 
seeding and this is another of its advantages. For cats, the drill has 
very little advantage over broadcasting in wet seasons. On an average, 
however, drilling oats has increased the yield about three bushels per 
acre. It will save from one-half to one bushel of seed to each acre. 

Grass and clover generally do better with drilled grain than with 
that broadcasted. The drill should be run north and south so the sun 



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The Usual Type of Grain Drill with Single Disk Furrow Openers. 1 



can get into the grass. With winter wheat, north and south drill rows 
generally hold snow better and heave less than rows running east and 
west. All seed used in drills should be thoroughly cleaned to avoid clog- 
ging and insure even distribution. Care should be exercised to adjust 
the furrow openers so that the seed will be deposited at the mcst desir- 
able depth. The smaller the seed, the shallower it should be covered. 
Seed may be covered more deeply in a dry, loose soil than in a wet, 
compact one. 

Corn Planters. — These are strictly an American invention and have 
been developed within the last sixty years. They have reached the high- 
est stage of development of any of the seeding machinery. The corn crop 
is so important and is grown on land of such high value that the impor- 
tance of accuracy in planting is greater than with the small grains. The 

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111. 



170 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



tillage demanded by this crop makes it essential that the rows be straight, 
and in case it is check-rowed, that the hills be reasonably compact. 

The dropping device should be carefully adjusted and the plates 
selected to drop the desired number of kernels. It pays to grade the 
seed for uniformity in size. No device can do perfect work with seed 
corn, the kernels of which vary greatly in size. There are two forms of 
plates: the round-holed plate and the edge-selection plate. Whichever 
form is used, the adjustments should be such that the kernels of corn 
will not be broken. 




£* 



A Good Corn' Planter. 1 



There are four forms of furrow openers for corn planters, viz., the 
curved runner, the stub runner, the single disk and the double disk. 
Each has its advantages, depending on character and condition of soil 
and presence or freedom from trash. Whatever form is used, the seed 
should be deposited at a uniform depth and properly covered. 

There ;ire several tonus of planter wheels. Their purpose is three- 
fold: (1) to support the frame of the machine, (2) to cover the corn, and 

(3) to compress the earth about it. A solid wheel is made both flat and 
concave on its Burface. The concave surface is superior, because it more 
completely closes the furrow and leaves the track slightly higher in the 
center than at the sides. The open wheel is also used. This leaves a 

■ Courtesy of Emerson-Brantbgham Implement Company, Rockford, 111. From pamphlet "A 
Book About Emerson Plant* i r 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 171 

narrow ridge of loose earth directly over the corn. This prevents crust- 
ing of the soil directly over the seed in case rains follow planting. 

Check-rowers are attached to corn planters for the purpose of having 
the corn plants in rows in both directions. This provides for cross culti- 
vation and is desirable on weedy soil. There are two forms of check- 
rowers, one in which the wire enters the device on one side of the planter 
and is left on the ground on the opposite side, where it is gathered up by 
the planter upon its return. In the other form the wire remains on the 
side of the planter next to the planted portion of the field. In the first 
form, the knots on the wire are twice as far apart as the hills of corn, 
each knot dropping two hills as it passes through the mechanism. In 
the second form the distance between knots on the wire is the same as 
the distance between hills. 

The best planters are so constructed that the distance between fur- 
row openers and wheels can be adjusted. The adjustment generally ranges 
from 3 to 4 feet in width. On good soil, corn is generally planted with 
rows 3| feet apart. 

The seed boxes should have tight covers with good latches. The 
boxes should be hinged so that they can be inverted to change the plates 
without removing the corn. This also provides for the quick removal of 
corn when one wishes to change from one variety of seed to another. 

HARVESTING MACHINERY 

In no phase of farm activity has there been a greater saving of labor 
than through the introduction of improved harvesting machinery. In 
less than three-quarters of a century this phase of farm work has passed 
from the use of the cradle by which two men by long hours of back- 
breaking work could cut and bind an acre and a quarter of grain in a 
day, to the eight-foot self-binders, by which one man and three horses 
can cut and bind fifteen acres in a day. Not only is much more accom- 
plished, but the work is better done. 

Mowing Machines. — The side-cut mowing machine, in spite of its 
side draft, has not been displaced by the direct cutting machine. The 
two-horse mowing machine with a six-foot cutting bar is generally preferred. 
While there are a number of makes of mowing machines, selection should 
be made to fit the character of work to be done. The machine should be 
no heavier than is required for the work it is to do. The important parts 
of the mowing machine are the cutting device, consisting of the cutting- 
bar, guards and sickle, and the transmission gearing which transmits the 
power of the team from the wheels to the cutting device. Ample adjust- 
ment should be provided for regulating the height of cutting and also 
for quickly elevating the bar to avoid obstructions in the field. 

It is important to keep all bearjngs tight and thoroughly oiled. 
This increases the length of life of the machine and promotes efficiency. 
The sickle knives should be kept sharp and should be held firmly against 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 173 

the ledger plates. Damaged plates or badly worn and broken knives 
should be promptly replaced by new ones. 

The Pittman bearings are the ones most likely to become loose. This 
will give rise to pounding, which will wear the bearings rapidly. The 
bearings of the Pittman at both the sickle head end and the Pittman crank 
end should, therefore, be of easy adjustment. 

Self -Rake Reaper. — This machine soon followed the improvement 
and development of the modern mower. It was extensively used for a 
short period, but was soon displaced by the self-binder. The self-rake 
reaper is still a desirable machine fcr harvesting such crops as flax, buck- 
wheat and clover for seed. These crops, when harvested, cling together 





A Mowing Machine with Pea Vine Attachment. 1 



and there is little advantage in having them bound into bundles. This 
machine, therefore, does the work of harvesting these crops at less initial 
cost of machine and a further saving in twine. Since the mowing machine 
and the modern self-binder are both required on most farms, the self- 
rake reaper is now generally dispensed with, unless the acreage of the 
above-mentioned crops is large. 

Self-Binder. — This machine has been developed since 1875, and is 
now almost universally used in harvesting small grains. There are a 
number of different makes, but the most satisfactory ones are built prin- 
cipally of steel, combining strength with lightness of weight and durability. 
The essential parts consist of the cutting device, the elevators and the 

1 Courtesy of F. Blocki Manufacturing Company, Sheboygan, Wis. 



L 74 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

binding apparatus. To these may be added the reel with its several 
adjustments and the bundle carrier. There are numerous details which 
will not be described here. The precautions advised relative to the 
working parts of the mowing machine apply with equal force to the self- 
hinder. Various parts of the binding apparatus must work in harmony 
and be so timed that each part will do its work at exactly the right moment. 
In order to operate the self-binder satisfactorily, one should understand 
the working of the various parts and be capable of adjusting them. 

The canvas elevators should be neither too tight nor too loose to insure 
good work. They should be loosened when the machine stands in the 
field over night. If rain threatens, it is wise to remove them or cover the 
machine to keep them dry. Their usefulness will be greatly lengthened by 
removing them from the machine, rolling them so mice cannot enter the 
folds and storing in a dry place at the close of the harvesting season. 

The best way to keep the self-binder in first-c ass condition is to oil 
all wearing parts as soon as the harvest is over and store the machine 
under shelter at once. If work is not rushing at this time, repairs should 
be made while the farmer knows how the machine has been running and 
what parts need repairs. If these precautions are not taken, three or 
four times as much labor will be required to remove the rust and get the 
machine to operating smoothly the following season. 

One should always have on hand a small supply of knife blades and 
rivets, extra links for the chains that are likely to break and a few extra 
small bolts and taps. It is essential to have with the machine suitable 
wrenches, pliers, a cold chisel, screwdriver and hammer. The frequent 
oiling of all bearings is necessary. 

Corn Harvesters. — The modern corn harvester is the outgrowth of 
the self-binder. It combines the same principles in both cutting and 
binding apparatus. The apparatus for conveying the stalks to the binder 
is very different from that of the self-binder. The various parts of the 
machine are much stronger than those of the self-binder, in order to 
handle heavy green corn without straining or breaking the machine. It 
is designed to cut one row of corn at a time and is now extensively used in 
cutting corn for the silo as well as cutting more mature corn for shocking 
in the field. 

This machine costs equally as much as the self-binder, and is an eco- 
nomical investment, where there are twenty acres or more of corn to be 
harvested. 

Threshing Machines. — The modern threshing machine has reached 
a high stage of development and does all the work of separating the grain 
from the straw, cleans the grain of chaff and foreign material, delivers the 
grain to bag or wagon and the straw to stack or mow without its being 
touched by the hands of man after it is forked from the wagon to the self- 
feeder and band cutter. 

Since the average fanner does not own a threshing outfit, it is not 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 175 

necessary for him to understand the details of it. Threshermen would 
not be satisfied with the brief description that space will permit in this 
chapter. They can secure ample information from the threshermen's 
books published by threshing machine manufacturing companies. 

The clover huller is a modified threshing machine and is generally 
owned and operated for a community by the owners of a general thresher 
or corn-sheller outfit. 

Small threshing machines are manufactured for individual farmers, 
and may prove economical for farmers in the eastern section of the 




An Up-to-date Threshing Machine. 1 



United States, where it is the custom to store the sheaf grain In large 
barns and thresh it in the winter time. The essential points in operating 
the thresher are the speed of the cylinder, which should be uniform, the 
setting of the concaves, and the number of teeth in it so as to remove 
all grain from the heads, the speed of the fan, and the selection and 
adjustment of the sieves, so as to clean the grain without blowing any 
into the straw. Rapid and satisfactory work necessitates ample power. 
The power may consist of steam, gasoline or electric motors, and should 
be adapted to as many other uses as possible. 



Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111. 



176 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Corn Shelters. — In the corn belt, large corn shellers are used for 
shelling nearly all corn that goes to market. They are owned and operated 
for community work the same as threshers. 

Many small hand and power corn shellers are used on farms for 
shelling corn for feeding purposes. There are two general forms, viz., 
the spring sheller and the cylinder sheller. All hand shellers are of the 
first-named type, but some of the power shellers are of the second type. 
The latter are cheaper and of simpler construction, and seldom get out of 
order. They break the cobs badly and small pieces of cobs are more 
numerous in the corn than when spring shellers are used. For this reason, 




Four-hole Mounted Relt Corn Sheller with Right Angle Belt Attachment. 1 

the spring sheller is considered superior. The unbroken cobs arc much 
better fuel. 

The larger shellers of both types are provided with a cleaning device 
which separates chaff, husks and cobs from the shelled corn, and elevators 
which elevate both shelled corn and cobs. 

In order to do good work, corn should be reasonably dry when 
shelled. It is impossible for the sheller to do satisfactory work when 
corn is so damp that the kernels are removed with difficulty. Further- 
more, such shelled corn will heat or spoil when placed in storage. Corn 

1 Courtesy of Sandwich Manufacturing Company, Sandwich, 111. 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 177 



shells most easily when the temperature is below freezing, especially if 
inclined to be damp. 

Silage Cutters. — A silo may now be found on nearly every dairy- 
farm; consequently, silage cutters are in much demand and have been 
greatly improved in recent years. The essential parts cf the silage cutter 
are the feeding table, provided with an endless apron which feeds the 
corn into the cutting apparatus, the cutter head and the elevator. There 
are two types of cutter heads: one with radial knives fastened directly 
to the flywheel; the other with spiral knives fastened to a shaft. The 
modern elevator consists of a tight metal tube, through which a blast 
of air is driven by a fan. This blows the cut corn to the top of the silo, 
frequently having an elevation of 40 or more feet. It is a good plan to 
have a movable cylinder, either of metal or canvas to descend in the silo 
nearly to the surface of the filled portion. A man in the silo can move 
this to any point, thus keeping the surface level and avoiding a separation 
of the lighter and heavier portions. This not only saves labor, but pro- 
vides for uniform settling of the silage. 

The cutter knives should be kept sharp and be carefully adjusted 
so as to have a close shearing effect. If they are too loose, the material 
will be broken instead of cut, thus requiring more power. If the knives 
press against the ledger plate with too much force, there is undue friction 
and wearing of the knives. 

The cut corn leaves the silage cutter coated with juice, and acids 
frequently are developed, thus causing rapid erosion and rusting of all 
metal parts. It is, therefore, advised to run a few forkfuls of hay or 
straw through the cutter to remove this material, thus leaving it in a 
dry condition. 

Manure Spreader. — A manure spreader should find a place on every 
farm where there are 100 loads of manure to spread annually. It not 
only reduces the work of spreading the manure, but spreads it more evenly 
and with more rapidity than can be done by hand. Careful experiments 
show that light applications of manure for general farm crops bring better 
returns per unit of manure than heavier applications. Manure spreaders 
make the manure cover more land, thus increasing the returns. 

The essentials of a good manure spreader are strength, ample capacity 
and an apron that will not clog or stick, together with a beater that will 
spread the manure evenly. The machine should be capable of adjustment 
so that any desired amount may be applied. The gearing should be cov- 
ered so as to protect it from the manure. Spreaders are of heavy draft, 
and may be provided with shafts so that three horses may be used. 

It saves time to have the spreader so placed that the manure carrier 
may be dumped directly into it. When filled, it may be hauled to the 
field, the manure spread and the spreader returned for refilling. Good 
farmers find it economy to provide a cement floor, slightly hollowed in 
the center, on which the spreader stands. This saves the liquid which 



L78 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



may drain from the spreader, and the overflow of manure that sometimes 
occurs. If this is covered with a roof the spreader is protected and leach- 
ing is prevented. If such a shed is sufficiently large, il may Berve as a 
storage place when there are no fields on which manure may be spread. 

Milking Machines. — These have been rapidly improved within the 
last few years, but have not come into very general use. For economical 
use, they require power and tubing for suction in addition to the apparatus 
proper. They should, therefore, be most economical in large dairies where 




Milking Machine in Operation. 1 



the power can be utilized for other purposes as well. The chief advantages 
of the milking machine are the saving of time in milking and cleaner milk. 
Cleanliness of milk demands that the apparatus be kept sterilized and 
clean. The machine should be washed with soda and hot water and all 
metal parts boiled for half an hour. The rubber parts will not permit of 
boiling. It is recommended that they be hung in a tank of water con- 
taining about 7 per cent of salt and 0.75 per cent of chloride of lime. 

The labor saved in milking by the use of the machine may be offset 
by the extra work in operating and caring for the apparatus. In large 
dairies, where stablemen are required to do no other work, this is not a 



1 Courtesy of The College of Agriculture and Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Depart- 
ment of Animal Husbandry, Lexington, Ky. 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 179 

serious objection, since the average man can feed and care for more cows 
than he can milk by hand during the milking period. 

Spraying Machines.— On all truck and fruit farms spraying machines 
are a necessity. The size and kind of outfit will depend on the size of 
business and character of plants to be sprayed. Wherever there are more 
than eight or ten acres of orchard, a power sprayer mounted on wheels 
is recommended. Those which develop power from the wheels are cheap- 
est, but are not so satisfactory for spraying large trees. A high-grade 
gasoline engine and a good tank for compressed air provide a uniform 
pressure under all conditions. Good work demands a pressure of from 




A Power Sprayer Routing Orchard Pests. 



90 to 125 pounds. Good nozzles that will give a fine spray without clog- 
ging are essential. There should be an agitator in the receptacle that 
holds the spraying material. The hose attachments should be ample in 
length to reach all parts of the trees. 

Horses attached to the sprayer should be protected by suitable 
covering. 

For small orchards or for small fruit, the barrel sprayer with hand 
pump, mounted on a sled, will serve the purpose. Knapsack sprayers 
may meet the needs for garden purposes, and are also useful in connection 
with larger outfits. They are suited to spraying the base of trees for 
mice, rabbits and borers. They are also good to spray young plants and 
for shrubs and bushes around the home. 



ISO 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Tractors. — The rapid development of small tractors adapted to a 
wide range of uses on the moderate sized to small farm is certain to dis- 
place considerable of the horse power within the next decade. The 
advantages of tractors lie in the saving of time and in the fact that they 
are of little or no expense when not in use. With present prices of horse 
feed and fuel for tractors, whether it be coal, crude oil or gasoline, the 
tractor furnishes power at less cost than the horse. 

The motor truck is recommended for farmers having much market- 
ing to do, especially if the distance from market is great and roads are 
suitable for such a vehicle. 



"^ir^ 




A Collection of Useful Hand Implements. 1 



For a fuller discussion of farm motors and tractors, see the follow- 
ing chapter. 

Farm Vehicles. — Farm wagons should be selected to suit the char- 
acter of work to be done, and be adapted to the character of roads in the 
vicinity. Wide tires are recommended for farm use and for dirt roads. 
Under most conditions they are lighter of draft and injure roads and 
fields less than do the regulation narrow-tired wagons. It pays to buy 
the l.cst. makes of wagons, to provide shelter for them and to keep both 
running gear ami boxes well painted. 

A low-wheeled running gear on which may be placed the regulation 
wagon box or hay rack finds favor on most farms. It saves much 
Lifting. 



1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company. N. Y. From "Soils," by Lyon and Fippen. 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 181 

A light runabout, suitable for one horse, is useful on nearly every 
farm. A carriage or surrey should be provided for the pleasure of the 
family. 

The automobile is now displacing the carriage or surrey to a con- 
siderable extent. It serves for both business and pleasure and is a great 
saver of the farmer's time where considerable distance and frequent trips 
are involved. The automobile ccsts little or no more than a good driving 
team and carriage, and should be less expensive to maintain. 




Interior of a Workshop with a $25.00 Outfit of Tools. 1 

Hand Implements. — The number and variety of hand implements 
found on a farm will be determined by the type of farming. They will 
be most extensively needed on truck and fruit farms. Several forms of 
hoes, suited to the different kinds of work, are necessary. The hand 
rake, spades and shovels should be of a type best suited to the work to 
be done. It pays to keep hand implements sharp and well polished. One 
can not only do more work with a sharp, well-polished hoe than one can 
with a dull, rusty one, but pleasure is added to the work. 

There should be an ample outfit of barn implements suited to the 
kind of feed to be handled and the cleaning of the barn. These should 

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 347 , U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



L82 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



include suitable brooms and brushes for sweeping dry floors, shovels of 
the size and form suited to the kind of floor and also the gutters. Good 
currycombs and brushes, always in their place when not in use, insure 
better care of the stock. 

Tools. — The most used forms of carpenter's tools should be found on 
every farm. There should be a small shop in which to keep them and 
where they may frequently be used. The ax, hatchet and two or more 
kinds of hammers, the cross-cut and the rip saw, a brace and suit a 1.1c 
outlay of bits, and one or more good planes will frequently be needed. 
There should also be a suitable collection of files, punches, pliers and 
wrenches. Both flat and three-cornered files will be found useful. The 

bastard and second- 
cut are the grades of 
files most needed for 
general work. Cold 
chisels and a few wood 
chisels will also be use- 
ful. There are many 
other small tools that 
can be added to the 
outfit as needed. The 
extent of the outfit 
will be determined by 
the extent and charac- 
ter of the farm ma- 
chinery, the mechani- 
cal ability of the 
farmer and the accessi- 
bility to local repair 
shops. 

Handy Conveni- 
ences. — There are 
innumerable conveniences, many of which are home-made, that find much 
use on the farm. Among these may hi 1 mentioned the various forms of 
eveners and double-trees, suitable to three horses or more, and made to 
suit the character of machinery on which used. 

A pump with hose attachment, fastened to a board, may be placed 
across the wagon bed and is very handy in filling barrels from a stream or 
shallow well. A derrick of suitable height is useful in the home butchering 
of hogs, sheep, calves or beef animals. A hoisting apparatus suitable lor 
putting hay into the mow or stack should find a place on nearly every farm. 
The wagon jack will make the work of greasing wagons and other 
vehicles easy. 

A hand cart and a wheelbarrow are frequently needed. Suitable 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 




Home-made Barrel Cart for Hauling Liquid Feed. 1 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 18.3 



carriers operated on tracks in the barns are superior to the wheelbarrow 
for conveying feed to mangers and manure to the spreader or manure pit, 
but are more expensive. 

Standard measures for carrying and measuring grain are always useful. 
These may be in the form of good splint baskets or as metal measures 
with handles. 

Machinery for the House.— The weekly wash for the average farm 
family, when done in the old-fashioned way, is a laborious task. It can 
be greatly lightened 
by the use of the 
washing machine, 
wringer and mangle 
that are operated by 
mechanical power. A 
laundry, with modern 
equipment, is of more 
urgent need in the 
country than in the 
city. Power for such 
a laundry may be used 
for other purposes, 
such as pumping water 
for a pressure system, 
operating the cream 
separator, churn and 
possibly a suction 
cleaner. There are too 
many fanners who are 
able to supply such an 
equipment who are 
content to permit their 
wives to do this work 
in the old-fashioned 
way. It is safe to 
predict that if these 

duties were to fall to the lot of the farmer himself, he would find a way to 
do the work more easily and quickly. 

There are on the market many labor-saving household implements, 
including power churns, cream separators, sewing machines, meat cutters, 
vacuum cleaners, etc. Wherever electricity is available, electric irons and 
other electrical devices help to lighten the work. 

If water must be pumped or drawn from the well by the housewife, 
no reason exists why a pipe could not be extended and a pump placed in 
the kitchen or a pump house connected with the kitchen. 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, 
47 




Home-made Dump Cart to Make Stable Work Easier. * 



L84 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Buying Farm Machinery. — The farmers of the United States spend 
more than $100,000,000 annually for the purchase of farm machinery. 
The average life of such machinery is about ten years. Its durability 
could doubtless be much Lengthened if it had better care. 

It generally pays to buy the best makes of machines, even though 
the initial cost is greater than that for cheaper ones. Whether or not 
it pays to buy a machine depends on the amount of work for which it 
can be used. If the amount of work is small, it is frequently cheaper to 
hire a machine than to own one. In some localities the more expensive 
machines are owned jointly by two or more fanners. 

It requires good judgment to know when to replace an old machine 
with a new one. Frequently machines apparently worn out may be 
made to work as good as new by replacing badly worn parts. On the 
other hand, some machines go rapidly out of date because of important 
improvements. A new machine may, the/efore, be purchased to advan- 
tage and the old one discarded even 
though not worn out. There is a 
tendency on the part of too many 
farmers to get along with the old 
machine at a sacrifice of much time 
spent in continual repairing. 

Care of Machinery. — Every farmer 
should have a shed large enough to 
house all his farm implements. This 
may be a cheap structure, the two essen- 

{ W ashing Machine Saves Much tials bein S a drv noor . and a S ood roof - 
Hard Work for the Housewife. 1 There should be sufficient room to store 

the implements without taking them 
all apart. It is well to arrange them in the shed when time is not press- 
ing, so that those first needed in the spring are most accessible. 

The woodwork of all machinery should be painted whenever it shows 
need of it. This should be done in leisure time. All machinery should 
be examined and nuts and bolts tightened. The metal parts, such as the 
Surface of plow bottoms, cultivator shovels, the disks of disk harrows, 
drills and cultivators should be greased, either with kerosene and tallow 
or cheap axle grease, as soon as their work is done. This prevents rust- 
ing and is easily removed when the machine is again needed for use. 
Although paint is sometimes used for this purpose, it is not advised, as 
it is too difficult to remove. 

Condition of Machinery. — Every farmer realizes the importance of 
having all machinery and implements in good working order. This 
pertains to the adjustment of all complex machinery and applies also 
to the adjustment of devises on plows, so that they will run at the proper 
depth. A machine out of adjustment qo1 only does its work poorly, but 

I Courtney of Alt. fee, 111, 




FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 185 

generally requires more power to operate it. Some one has well said, 
"Constant vigilance and oil is the price of smooth-running, efficient farm 
tools, and to spare either is dangerous as well as expensive." Saws that 
will saw, knives that will cut, hammers that will stay en their handles, 
are much to be preferred. 

Utilizing Machinery. — A full equipment of farm machinery costs so 
much that interest and depreciation are a burden for the small farmer. 
This may be overcome by joint ownership of the more costly machines. 
Large farms can own a complete outfit and utilize it quite fully. The 
smaller the farm the greater the machinery cost per acre. On small 



I 

- 


"'" ^8j|| 




■BljIpiH^^., 


111 \s-' % \SW 


S^Sii j*?k$ 




Sip*-" -if K 'Uc '-' '*- "7>&1^Jm<0r 




1 





Where Do You Prefer to Keep Your Implements? Under the Sky? 



farms the use for certain machinery may be so small as to make owner- 
ship unprofitable. 

The greater the skill and higher the wage of workmen, the greater 
the necessity of using the best and most efficient machinery. 

For the general farmer tools that are adjustable and can be used 
for several purposes are advantageous. A combined spike and spring- 
toothed harrow that may be changed from one to the other by the use of 
two levers often saves an extra trip to the house or prevents one being 
used where the other would have served better. The same principle 
applies to cultivators where gangs or shovels can be changed for disks 
or sweeps. 

Cost of Farm Machinery. — The principal items in the cost of farm 
machinery are depreciation, interest on the capital invested, cost of repairs. 

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, 



186 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



oil and labor in caring for machinery, together with the proper housing 
of it. When these costs are figured on the acre basis the rate varies 
inversely in proportion to the acres covered. Low cost, therefore, is asso- 
ciated with the fullest possible utilization of the machines. It is signifi- 
cant that the high-priced machines are usually those used for the shortest 
period. 

The method of computing the cost of farm machinery is well illus- 
trated in the accompanying table taken from the Tribune Farmer: 



Table Showing Method op 


Finding 


the Cost of Using Farm Machinery. 




C3 

A 

"5 
Q 


£ 


I 


15 


Approximate 
Average Value 
for Life. 


Annual Costs. 


i 

o 

a 

o" 




Implement. 


O 

1 s 

> -2 

Ei3 


a 

.2 

a, 

a 


2"! 
S«2 


8 

o 

o 
H 


o 

a 

a 

o 

O 


Two two-horse walking 


1902-04 

1902 

1903 

1903 

1906 

1906 

1903 

1906 

1902 

1904 

1904 

1903 

1903 

1908 

1908 

1902 03 

1903 

1909 

1902 


$24.00 
14.40 

12.00 
12.00 
9.00 
7 50 
31.00 
42 00 

125. 00 
70.00 
25.00 
38.00 
18 mi 
80.00 

jm mi 
83.50 

L10 25 
50.00 

386.00 


16.4 
11 4 
20.0 
15.0 
17.5 
16.4 
13.7 

12.'$ 
14.8 
21.8 
12.8 
12.8 
10.0 
13.5 
16.2 
20.5 
20.0 

10.0 

12.7 


n 

10 


813.00 
7 50 
6.50 
6.50 
5.00 
4.00 
38.00 

64.00 
37 mi 
13.00 

20.00 
9.50 

4.' HI) 

105.00 
43.00 

58.00 
26.00 

197.00 


.65 
.38 
.33 
.33 
.25 
.20 
1.90 

i'.ib 

1 85 
.65 
1.00 
.48 
2.10 
5.25 
2.15 
2.90 
1.30 

9.85 


8146 
1.26 
.60 
.80 
.52 
.46 
5.33 

l6!66 
4.73 
1.15 

3.00 
1.40 
8.00 
14.83 
5 15 
5.38 
2.50 

38.60 


80.95 
.33 
.25 

3.25 
.32 
.18 

4.30 

2i98 
3.50 

.65 
1.37 

.50 
5.25 
5.10 
5.60 
4 75 

.50 

1.38 


S3. 06 
1.97 
1.1S 
4.38 
1.09 
84 

11.53 

16.18 
10.08 
2.45 
5.37 
2.38 
15.35 
25.18 
12.90 
13.03 
4.30 

49.83 


344 
242 
78 
82 
25 
10 
154 

28 

59 
35 
16 
16 
44 

128 
3192 

250 
40 

78* 


80.0089 


Spring-tooth barrow .... 

Spike-tooth harrow 

Roller 


0.0073 
0.0151 
0.0534 




ii 0436 




0.0840 


Two riding cultivators 


0.0749 




1710 








3356 




14SS 


Gasoline engine 


0.3490 
0.0200 

o 0037 


Wagons, boxes, racks. . . 
Hay Blings, Fork track... 
Miscellaneous minor 


n 0521 
0.1075 

0.6400* 






Total cost 


$1,337.65 


8695.00 


34.77 


8105.17 


41.16 


8181.10 





Numerous records of the cost of farm machinery show that the 
annual cost per farm is about one-quarter of the actual value of the 
machinery for the year involved. 

Farm surveys in Wisconsin indicate that too many farmers economise 
on their farm equipment to such an extent that efficiency is sacrificed and 
profits are below what they would be with a more modern and efficient 
equipment. 

Duty of Farm Machinery pertains to the amount of work each 
machine will do daily or for the season. Manufacturing concerns stand- 
ardize different operations in their shops as much as possible. This enables 
them to estimate very closely the amount of work thai can be turned out 
in a given time, and makes it possible for them to state to customers when 
a stated task can be completed. It is just as essential for the farmer to 



* Miscellaneous minor equipment charges are distributed on the basis of the total productive nroa of 
the farm, 7i> acres, lu this group all machinery and small tools not specifically mentioned are included, 



FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 187 

standardize his various machines in order to know what machinery will 
be required for his various operations. 

There are many factors influencing the duty of a given machine, 
such as the speed of the team, the weather conditions and the condition 
of the ground. On an average, the daily duty of a machine in acres is 
equal to the width in feet times 1.4. In other words, a 12-inch plow will 
average 1.4 acres per day. A 6-foot mower will cut 8.4 acres per day. The 
size of fields will also influence the duty, since small fields require more 
turning and loss of time. 

Careful investigations in Minnesota and Ohio show that in the 
former state the acre cost of corn machinery is $1.07, while in the latter 
it is only 49 cents. The lower cost in Ohio is due chiefly to the relatively 
larger acreage of corn per farm and the fuller utilization of machinery. 

REFERENCES 

"Farm Machinery and Farm Motors." Davidson and Chase. 

Kentucky Expt. Station Bulletin 186. "Mechanical Milker." 

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 353. 

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 227. Circular 98. 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletins: 44, 212. 

Farmers' Bulletin 347, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Repair of Farm Equipment." 



GRID VALVE 



FUEL RESERVOIR 



AUXILIARY RESERVOIR 



VALVE ROD 
FUEL PIPE 



GOVERNOR 
GEAR 



GOVERNOR 
SLEEVE 



FUEL INLET VALVL 



WATER OUT LI 1 
ELEC1 RIC IGNI7FR 



GOVERNOR 
WEIGHT 

KB 



PINION 



CRANK BASE 



[FLY.WHEEl *■ 




Sectional Vikw of a Four-Cycle Vertical Gas Engine. 1 



>Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111. 

(188) 



CHAPTER 11 

Engines, motors and Tractors for the Farm 

By R. U. Blasingame 
Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Alabama Polytechnic Institute 

THE REAL POWER FOR THE FARM 

The real call of the farm is for power, some means by which the skill of 
a single man can direct a force that will do as much work as a score or more 
men could do unaided. From plowing to the feed trough, it takes 4| hours 
work to raise one bushel of corn by hand. The use of improved machinery 
and the multiplicity of power has reduced this figure to 41 minutes. 

Various forms of power, such as the treadmill, the sweepmill and the 
windmill, have all failed in many respects. Windmills are objectionable 
because they are not portable, they are not steady in power and are often 
wrecked by the wind. The sweep power is hard to move, cumbersome and 
requires the operators to be exposed to many storms. 

The steam engine, but for the close attention it requires, might be the 
real power needed for farm purposes. Electricity, when correctly installed, 
is safe, efficient and convenient, but for farm purposes where all jobs are 
not under one roof as in factories, the lack of portability makes it incon- 
venient. 

The gasoline engine is the only power at the present time that embodies 
all the requirements for farm purposes. The operator of such power needs 
no greater mechanical training than should be necessary to properly operate 
a grain binder. If power is needed in the laundry room, a small engine 
might easily be transported to run a washing machine. If it is needed in the 
furthest corner of the wood lot, it can be conveyed to that place without 
a second or third trip for water and coal, as would be required for a steam 
engine. In the coldest, driest and calmest weather the gas engine produces 
power without delay. It can be obtained in units of from one-half horse 
power to any size that might be required for any farm job. 

In parts of the West where the gas engine is best known, it is plowing, 
harrowing and seeding in one operation by the square mile instead of by 
the acre, and is doing the work better quicker and cheaper than it could 
be done by horse or steam power. 

Gas Engine Principles. — There are two distinct types of gas engines 
on the market at the present time which are used for agricultural purposes; 
the four-stroke cycle and the two-stroke cycle engine. 

The four-stroke cycle or four-cycle engine requires four strokes in 
order to get one working stroke. These strokes are as follows: The intake 

(189) 



100 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



stroke, in which the charge of air and gas is mixed in the right proportions 
to give an explosive mixture. The second stroke compresses the charge 
of air and gas which was previously drawn into the cylinder. The third 
stroke is the working one in which the compressed charge of air and gas is 
exploded and the energy hurled against the piston head. The fourth 
stroke is the exhaust, or elimination of all the old gases which were burned. 
Therefore, the four-cycle engine requires two revolutions of the fly wheel to 
complete the four strokes necessary for obtaining power from this type of 

engine. The four- 
cycle engine requires 
two openings which 
are provided wii h 
valves held tightly in 
place by springs. 
These valves are oper- 
ated by mechanical 
means, although in 
some engines the in- 
1 ake valve is opera I < ■< 1 
by suction. 

The two-stroke 
cycle or two-cycle 
engine requires two 
strokes of the piston 
in securing one work- 
ing stroke. Therefore. 
this engine theoretic- 
ally receives twice the 
power per square inch 
hurled against the ins- 
ton that the four-cycle 
engine does. The 
crank case of such an 
engine must necessa- 
rily be airtight, because the charge of air, or sometimes a mixture of air and 
gas, is 1 (lout;! it into this part on the up-stroke of the piston and on the down- 
ward st roke the burned gas passes out of the exhaust port while the new <;as 
from the crank case enters the combustion chamber. It is, therefore, 
entirely necessary that the crank shaft which runs through the crank case 
fit airtighl in its bearings. This is a condition which is difficult to maintain. 
especially in an old engine. This type of engine does not operate with 
valves at the intake and exhaust, but operates with ports or openings which 
are opened and closed by the piston passing over them. 

About oo pei- cent of all the gas engines used for agricultural purposes 




Sectional View of a Two-Cycle Engine. 1 



1 Courtesy of Ellis Engine Company, Detroit, Mich. 



ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 



191 



at present are of the four-cycle type; also all but a few of the automobile 
engines are of this type. By experience, users and manufacturers have 
found the four-cycle engine the most successful. 

Vertical and Horizontal Engines. — Either four-cycle or two-cycle 
engines may be vertical or horizontal in appearance. The horizontal 
engine, especially of the four-cycle type, is much easier to repair than the 
vertical one. However, the vertical engine requires less space for its 
installation, but may not lubricate as well as the horizontal engine with the 
oil flowing from the top of the cylinder. 

Ignition. — There are three types of ignition used in gas engine opera- 
tion: high tension, low tension and compression ignition. 



FUEL PUMP OPERATING »OD 
FUEL PUMP LEVER 
GOVERNOR SHAFT 

'J— AIR HEATEP 



NLET VALVE 




>S£LF STAfTf :R 

P!N 



Sectional View of a Four-Cycle Horizontal Gas Engine. 1 



The high tension system requires a current of electricity with a voltage 
sufficiently high to cause a spark to jump from one point to another of a 
spark plug. This system is used, as a general rule, on high-speed motors. 

The low tension system requires a low voltage for ignition of com- 
pressed air and gas mixed together in the compression chamber. The spark 
is produced by the separation of two points in the cylinder which have been 
brought together and caused to separate. 

The source of current for these two types of electric ignition may be 
from dry or wet batteries or from magnetos. A very successful means of 
ignition is the battery to start the engine and the magneto to furnish the 
source of current after it is in operation. In no case should any one pur- 
chase a modern engine without a magneto. It is not heir to the many 

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111. 



192 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

diseases which render battery ignition worthless. The most modern 
engines do not require batteries even for starting the engines. 

Compression ignition is not so common at present in gas engine 
operation. It may be found upon several recent crude-oil engines, some 
of which are being used very successfully and cheaply for agricultural 
purposes. The principle of this ignition depends upon the separation of 
the heavy and light gases as the fuel is vaporized and drawn into the 
cylinders with the charge of air. In the compression stroke the lighter 
gases are ignited by the heat generated by the compression caused by the 
advancing piston. The light gases in turn ignite the heavier ones. This 
type of engine not only burns a veiy cheap grade of fuel, but may be 
operated with gasoline, kerosene or most any mixture of the fuels used in 
internal combustion engines. 

Cooling Systems. — When a mixture of gas and air is exploded in a 
gas engine the temperature rises to about 3000° F., which would melt 
the cylinder of such an engine if a part of the heat was not conducted 
away in some manner. Some manufacturers use water, some oil and others 
air for cooling gas engines. Also a mixture of several liquids is seme- 
times used in extremely cold weather to prevent freezing and the conse- 
quent bursting of the water jacket. Oil, when used for this purpose, 
takes the place of an anti-freezing mixture. 

Some engines are cooled by water poured around the cylinder in a 
hopper and the heat conducted from the engine by means of evaporation. 
Other engines require a circulating pump which causes some liquid to be 
circulated through the water jacket and thence over a screen where it 
is partially cooled and used again. There are other types of liquid-cooled 
engines which depend entirely upon the liquid circulating after the engine 
is warm enough to cause convection currents. 

The air-cooled engines for agricultural purposes have not proven 
altogether satisfactory on account of the small radiating surface; also 
the poor material which enters into the make-up in order that it may sell 
at a cheap price. 

Lubrication. — Graphite is the true lubricant. It is not affected by 
heat or cold. The reason it is not used more than it is, is because of 
the inconvenience it offers in passing through small openings which are 
ordinarily used for oils. A mixture of powdered graphite and oil might 
be occasionally placed in gas engine cylinders to aid in lubrication, but 
this could not be depended upon entirely because the operator may for- 
get when it is time to replace the lubricant. 

All bearings may be lubricated with a cheap grade of animal or 
vegetable oil, but the cylinders of a gas engine must not be lubricated 
with any except the best grade of gas engine cylinder oil. The tempera- 
ture in the cylinder of a gas engine is extremely high; therefore, a vege- 
table or animal oil would burn and be worthless for lubricating. More 
gas engines are sacrificed to the god of friction each year than from any 



ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 193 



other legitimate cause. It should be remembered by all who operate 
gas engines that oil is cheaper than iron. 

The gravity system is the most common means of lubrication. It 
consists of a glass cup placed above the highest point to be lubricated. 
The splash system is very often used and consists of a crank case filled 
with oil to the point that the crank touches the oil at each revolution. 
The force feed type of lubrication is very successful; however, it adds a 
few more working parts to an engine, which complicates and may cause 
an added trouble. There are other systems of lubrication which will not 
be mentioned because of the infrequency of their use. 

Gas Engine Parts. — The base of a gas engine supports the cylinder 
and all other parts of the engine structure. It should be in proportion 




Three H.P. Gas Engine Operating Binder. 1 

to the rest of the engine. The cylinder serves the purpose of a container 
and a receiver. It should be smooth and free from irregularities or dark 
spots. The cylinder contains the piston and receives the charge and its 
walls receive the force of every explosion. The piston transmits the 
power to the connecting rod which is similar to the pitman of a mowing 
machine. The crank shaft receives the sliding motion from the connect- 
ing rod and changes it into rotary motion. 

Governors. — There are two distinct types of governors used in gas 
engine operation at the present time. The hit-miss governor causes the 
exhaust valve to be held open mechanically when the engine begins to 
run above speed. So long as the exhaust valve is held open fresh air is 
drawn in and blown out; therefore, no power is obtained. As soon as 

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, III. 



194 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

the engine begins to operate below the rated speed, the exhaust valve closes 
and a charge of air and gas is drawn into the cylinder through the car- 
buretor. This type of governor, of course, gives an uneven speed, but 
it is all right for ordinary agricultural purposes. It would not do for 
furnishing electric lights direct from the dynamo, because the lights would 
flicker with every variation in speed. This type of engine would do for 
charging batteries from which lights may be taken. 

The throttle governor regulates the amount of air and gas mixture 
which enters the combustion chamber. This is done automatically in 
the stationary engines. This type of governor may be relied upon to 
give a more even speed than the preceding one, and especially is this true 
if extra heavy flywheels are used. 

Gas Engine Troubles. — Gas engine troubles are almost unlimited. 
They are generally from two causes: the tilings we forget and the things 
we don't know. Troubles most frequently occur in the ignition system 
or from lack of proper lubrication. The first is easily remedied, but the 
latter usually means a new part. If dry batteries are used they may 
become wet and deteriorate, or a connection may be loose in the wiring. 
A drop of oil or water may be over the point of the spark plug. Points 
of the spark plug may be too far apart or too close together. There may 
be a loss of compression due to leaking valves or piston rings which do not 
fit tightly against the walls of the cylinder. Leaking may take place also 
around the spark plug or igniter. The mixture of air and gas may not be 
proper, in which case, either the gasoline supply is not regular or the air 
is not properly supplied. In cold weather the fuel often refuses to 
vaporize. Such a condition may be remedied by pouring hot water in the 
water jacket in order to warm the cylinder enough for good vaporization. 

TRANSMISSION OF POWER 

The best farm motor on the market is of no value on the farm unless 
the power which it develops is transmitted to some other machine doing 
useful work. Power is transmitted by shafting, belts and gear wheels. 
While there are other methods of transmitting power, they are only 
modifications of these three. 

Shafting. — The shafting should transmit to the pulleys which it 
carries whatever energy it receives minus the amount consumed by fric- 
tion at its own bearings. Shafting should be of the veiy best material 
in order to reduce the friction in the bearings by reducing the size. It 
should be absolutely straight, because much power is required to spring 
even a two-inch line shaft into line during each of two hundred or four 
hundred revolutions per minute. A shaft should be driven from the 
center if possible and between two bearings, and transmit its power to a 
series of pulleys on either side of the main drive. If possible, heavy shafts 
should have their bearings or hangers rest upon posts which are directly 
connected with the ground, because there is always more or less "give" 



ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 



195 



in the average floor, especially if heavy storage should be above. Line 
shafting hangers should not be over 8 feet apart and if the shaft is light, 
not more than 6 feet apart. The horse power of a good shaft may be 
figured in the following manner: 

Multiply the cube of its diameter by the number of revolutions per 
minute and divide the result by 82 for steel and 110 for iron. In other 
words, "The amount of power that can be transmitted by two shafts of 
similar quality varies directly with the speed and with the cubes of their 
diameters.' 

The twisting strain on a shaft is greatest near the main drive; there- 




Engine Operating Pump Jack. 1 



fore, the nearer the main drive is to the hanger, the more nearly will 
its strain be counteracted. A disregard of any of the above principles 
is calculated not only to waste power, but gives an unsteady energy to the 
machine driven and affects both the efficiency and life of the machine being 
driven by it. 

Speed of Shafting. — If only one machine is to be driven by a shaft 
the problem of shaft speed is very simple. With the operation of a cream 
separator at a speed of 60 revolutions per minute and a wood saw at a 
speed of 400 to 600 revolutions per minute as well as other varied speeds, 
the problem is more difficult. It is at this point that many very large, 
expensive pulleys and a number of very small pulleys upon which belts 

Courtesy of The Christensen Engineering Company, Milwaukee, Wis. 



L96 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

do not work very successfully are used. It is best to average all the 
speeds of machines and operate a line shaft at a medium speed. 

The Size of Pulleys. — From the following formulas and conditit os 
one may figure the speed or diameter of any given pulley. 

With the speed of the driver, the speed of the driven and the diam- 
eter of the driver given, the diameter of the driven may be found. 

Example No. 1. 

Diameter of the driver X speed of Hie driver y-.- r , . 

: , ,, , r~. = Diameter of driven. 

Speed oi the driven 

Example No. 2. 

( riven t lie 

Speed of the driven X diameter of the driven TV , c , . 

-i- — — — - T = Diameter oi driver. 

Speed oi the driver 

Ex vmple No. 3. 
( riven the 

PiametCT " r ''"' '''i venX speed of the driven = ^^ q{ ^ ^^ 
Diameter ol the driver 

Example No. 1. 
( liven the 

Diameter of the driver X speed of (lie driver a , f ,, , ■ 

— -—± — : — bpeed ot the driven. 

e driven 

Kind of Pulleys. — Pulleys on the market at the present time arc 
manufactured from cast iron, steel, wood and paper. Of these, iron is 
the most commonly used. It is more compact than wood and is chea] er 
than steel, although wood can stand much higher ^]ah-i\ than the average 
iron pulley of similar size and design. Wooden pulleys have the advantage 
of holding to a belt better than steel or iron, especially if a belt begins to 
slip upon the iron pulley, thus wearing its face very smooth. For light 
work the split pulley, or the pulley which can be divided into two parts, 
is the most convenient upon the market , especially if machines are changed 
from time to time for different purposes. 

Straight and Crown Faces.— Iron pulleys are usually made crowning 
or slightly oval across the face. Where belts do not require shifting, this 
form holds belts to place in good shape. If the load is not heavy the 
crown pulley does not weaken the belt to a great extent, but with heavy 
loads the main strain conies upon the center of the belt and this causes a 
stretching and often develops splits. 

Covering Steel Pulleys.— If steel pulleys are used and their surface 
becomes slick to the point where behs slip badly, they may be covered 

with a leather face. This can be accomplished in the following manner: 

Clean the surface of the pulley with gasoline and apply a coat of 
varnish upon which a layer of soft paper is placed. Upon this paper a 

second coat of varnish is applied. A piece of leather belting is cut to tit 

the diameter of the wheel and while the varnish is still moist the section 



ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 197 

of belting is laced as tightly as possible upon the surface. The size of the 
pulley has now been materially changed; therefore, the effect upon other 
machines must be corrected. 

Pulley Fasteners.— Pulleys may be fastened to line shafting either 
by a key fitting into a key seat both in the pulley and the shafting or 
by means of a set screw. The set screw arrangement is convenient and 
is often used where light work is to be done. The set screw may be a, 
source of danger, especially in machines run at a high speed and where 
they are exposed and likely to catch the clothes of an operator. Also 
if the set screw once slips and grooves the shafting, it becomes necessary 
to shift the pulley to a new place. 

BELTS AND BELTING 

About 90 per cent of all the power transmission in the United States 
is accomplished by means of belts. 

Advantages of Belts. — In the first place, belts are noiseless. Energy 
may be transmitted by them at a much greater distance than by direct 
gears. There is less risk of accident than by any other means of trans- 
mission. They are simple and convenient and are applicable to a great 
many conditions. In case of breakage they can easily be repaired, and 
in case machines are moved this means of transmission is the most con- 
venient. For these reasons belting is especially adapted to farm uses. 

Disadvantages. — Belts are expensive because they wear very easily. 
They are not always economical of power and unless carefully adjusted 
and of ample size they are likely to slip. 

Essentials of a Belt. — If a belt has strength, durability, the absence 
of stretch and pulley grip, it has four very valuable qualities. Other 
qualities, such as flexibility and resistance to moisture, should also be 
considered. 

Leather Belting. — The oak-tanned leather is the best material for 
belting. It has strength and durability, but has a disadvantage in that 
it comes to the manufacturer in short lengths and if especial care is not 
taken in cementing the ends together, it goes to pieces very early. It has 
been found by experience that as high as 25 per cent more power and 
greater wear may be obtained from a leather belt by running it with the 
grain or hair side next to the pulley. That is to say, there is a rough and 
smooth side to leather belts. The smooth side should be run next to the 
pulley because this side would crack more readily if placed outward, 
especially in passing over smooth, small pulleys. 

Rubber Belts. — Rubber belting is manufactured by placing several 
layers of cotton duck and rubber alternately together and vulcanizing 
the mass into one. The strength of this kind of belt depends entirely 
upon the quality of the fabric which goes into its make-up. This belting 
has the advantage of being waterproof and may be made endless and in 
any length. Endless belts are not always best in a power house where 



198 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

every machine and pulley is stationary, because the length may change 
slightly with use. For outdoor work where machines may be moved, it 
gives excellent service. 

Oil of any kind is detrimental to almost every kind of belt, and 
care should be exercised to keep rubber belts free from it. Rubber belting 
is resistant to steam and is, therefore, used to a great extent in creameries. 

Belt Slipping. — All manner of belt dressings should be avoided because 
they often contain some material which shortens the life and hardens the 
surface of a belt. The hardening of a belt finally causes it to crack. Any 
sticky material put upon a belt will cause a loss in power due to an excess 
adherence to the pulley. If a large pulley drives a small one, it is best to 
pull with the lower side which is kept horizontal and allows the upper 
side to sag. This brings a greater surface of the belt in contact with the 
pulley. 

To twist a belt, as in pulleys to run in opposite directions, often pre- 
vents slipping by a greater exposure of the belt to the pulley. 

WATER MOTORS 

Overshot Wheels. — The overshot wheel receives its power from the 
weight of water carried by buckets which are fastened to the circum- 
ference of the wheel. The water enters the buckets at the top of the 
wheel and is discharged near the bottom. A wheel of this character is 
made by placing between two wooden disks a number of buckets or 
V-shaped troughs. The wheel may be supported upon a wood or steel 
shaft supported on concrete piers. Motors of this type can be built to 
operate under falls as low as four feet and may be expected to supply 
anywhere from 3 to 40 horse power, depending on the head of the fall 
and the water available. 

Undershot Wheels. — The undershot wheel is propelled by water 
passing beneath it in a horizontal direction, which strikes veins carried 
by the wheel. Such wheels are often used for irrigation purposes where 
the fall is too slight for other types of wheels. Most of the undershot 
wheels have straight, flat projections for veins, but the most efficient 
wheels are built with curved projections. This form of water motor 
operates satisfactorily where the water current is rather swift and in 
places where the volume of water is kept constant. They will not operate 
in streams that are ever flooded. 

Breast Wheels. — Under conditions where little fall may be procured, 
a breast wheel may be employed to develop power from running water. 
This type of wheel receives the water near the level of its axis, but in 
most features it is similar in its action to the overshot wheel. The veins 
may be straight or slightly curved backward near the circumference. 

The wheels mentioned above are very awkward and cumbersome 
for the amount of power that they are capable of developing. In other 
words, they are not what is known as efficient; however, they are cheap 



ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 



190 



in construction and 
often may utilize 
water where other 
types of more efficient 
wheels cannot be 
employed. 

Impulse Water 
Motors. — Impulse 
water motors are 
provided with buckets 
around the circumfer- 
ence of the wheel 
against which a small 
stream of water under 
high pressure oper- 
ates. The Pelton 
wheel is one of the 
most efficient of the 
water motors, but re- 
quires for successful 
operation a head of 
water considerably 
higher than is required 
by most of the other 
water wheels. This 
type of wheel may be 
secured in sizes under 
one horse power and 
up to several hundred 
horse power. 

Turbine Wheels. 
— The turbine is a 
water motor which is 
built up of a number of 
stationary and move- 
able curved pipes. It 
consists of the follow- 
ing parts: 

A guiding ele- 
ment which consists 
of stationary blades 
the function of which 
is to deliver the 




Pelton Water Wheel. 1 




Turbine Water Wheel. 2 



1 Courtesy of Pelton Water Wheel Company, New York. 

2 Courtesy of J. and W. Jolly Company, Holyoke, Mass. 

48 




3 



Courtesy of Advance-R' ly Company, Inc., La Porte, Ind. 

200 



ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 



201 



water to the rotary part under the proper direction and with the proper 
speed. 

A revolving portion which consists of veins or buckets which are 
placed in a certain position around the axis of the motor. 

The last two mentioned are the most efficient and up-to-date water 
motors on the market. Power obtained in this method is dependable, 
inexpensive, safe and sanitary. 

The Hydraulic Ram. — This device, although very wasteful of water, 
is one of the most economical motors for pumping water. It serves both 
as a motor and a pump. It is not only used for furnishing water for the 
farm house, barn and dairy, but it is used in many cases for irrigation 
purposes. Only about one-tenth of the water passing through a ram 




Hackney Auto-plow. 1 



is finally delivered to the water tank. There is a ram on the market 
at present which will operate on impure water which may be secured 
in large quantities and made to pump a pure supply of water. This is 
commonly known as the double-acting ram. 

THE FARM TRACTOR 

Farm tractors have been placed upon the market in the past in such 
large units that they were practical only on extremely large level farms 
in the Middle West. This type of tractor is being driven from the field 
by smaller and more compact tractors which are finding a place also on 
the small farm of 160 acres or less. 

The Size of Tractors. — A tractor of less than five tractive and teu- 



1 Courtesy of Hackney Manufacturing Company, St. Paul, Minn. 



202 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



bolt horse power has no place under average farm conditions on the small 
farm. This size should operate one fourteen-inch or two ten-inch plows. 
It should operate a small threshing machine and also the small silage cutter 
for silos not taller than thirty feet. This size tractor may operate a line 
shaft from which power can be secured for pumping, grinding feed, sepa- 
rating cream, churning, for electric lights and for many other farm opera- 
tions at one time. 

In hilly land where irregular fields are sure to be prevalent and rocky 
ledges are very likely to occur, the tractor has little place. As plowing 
is the biggest job in farm operation, the tractor should in this case have 

its greatest usefulness 
and should replace 
about one-third of the 
horses ordinarily em- 
ployed upon the farm. 
It generally takes 
about one-third less 
horse power to culti- 
vate, harvest and haul 
to market the crop of 
any farm than it takes 
to plow and prepare 
the seed-bed in a thor- 
ough fashion. Under 
ordinary small farm 
operations, the writer 
believes that an 8-16- 
horse power tractor is 
the most economical 
Creeping Grip Tractor. 1 size. 

Tractor Efficiency. 
— The tractor has been used for agricultural purposes long enough for 
this fact to become well established; where a tractor of repute is employed, 
more depends upon the intelligence of the tractioner than upon the ability 
of the machine to do good work. This does not mean that one has to 
have a college training in engineering or to be a master mechanic, but one 
should know the principles upon which a gas engine operates and the 
intelligent remedy of all diseases to which this mechanism is heir. 

Type of Tractor. — It has long been proven that a multi-cylinder 
engine is the most successful on the road for speed and power and it is 
becoming recognized by the best tractor manufacturers that more than 
one cylinder is more dependable and gives more constant power than the 
one-cylinder type of motor. Mmc cylinders mean more working parts, 




>Courtesj of The Bullocl Tractor Company, Chicago, III, 




- 


H 










:: 




«< 


CD 
CD 



ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS ,203 

but it also means that a steady pull may be secured, where with one 
cylinder the power is secured in large quantities at fewer intervals, which 
is not calculated to give the best efficiency. 

The multi-cylinder engine costs more at first, but the efficient service 
which it will render will more than compensate for its greater initial cost. 

REFERENCES 

"Power and the Plow." Ellis and Rumely. 
"Agricultural Engineering." Davidson. 
"Heat Engines." Allen and Bursley. 
"Farm Gas Engines." Hirshfield and Ulbricht. 
"Power." Lucke. 
,'Farm Motors." Potter. 



CHAPTER 12 

Farm Sanitation 

By R. U. Blasingame 
Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Alabama Polytechnic Institute 

Farm sanitation ordinarily includes five distinct branches, namely: 
lighting, heating, ventilation, water supply and sewage disposal. Following 
is a brief consideration of each of the above mentioned: 

LIGHTING 

There are several sources of light for isolated farm homes at the present 
time. They arc as follows: 

1. Kerosene Lamps. — These arc cheap in initial 
cost. The fuel may be obtained at any cross-roads 
store. They are quite safe. There are a few dis- 
advantages to such a source of light, namely, the 
odor they emit, the soot which they produce and the 
fact that they burn more oxygen than other forms 

of lighting. Lastly, the 
light is not a white light. 
2. Gasoline Lamps. 
— These may be divided 
into two groups, the cold 
process and the hot pro- 
cess. The former system 
requires a lighter grade 
of gasoline for the pro- 
duction of light and is 
more expensive to op- 
erate. The cold process 
lamps are much safer than the hot process lamps which may be operated 
with heavier, cheaper gasoline. While cheaper, the latter are more danger- 
ous than the former. 

3. Acetylene Gas. — This gas is produced by water and calcium 
carbide being brought together. The safest system of acetylene lighting 
may be had by feeding calcium carbide in small quantities to a large quan- 
tity of water. The heat produced is conducted away too fast for any danger 
of ( xplosion. While this system is reasonably safe, there have been many 
explosions which have cost both life and property. This gas may cause 





Mor-Lite Electric Plant. 1 



'Court sy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, III. 



204 



FARM SANITATION 



205 



death if inhaled. It has a characteristic odor which any one can easily 
detect if it is escaping from the system. The light produced from this 
system is white and considered excellent. 

4. Electrical Lighting. — The lighting of isolated homes by a private 
electrical system is generally thought to be an expensive luxury. However, 
during the past twenty years the cost of living has increased about 20 per 
cent and the cost of farm labor has increased about 35 per cent, but for the 



r 



50 Light Plant 




Electric Lighting Plant for Farm House. 1 

same period the cost of lighting by electricity has decreased about 85 per 
cent. This method of lighting, if correctly installed, is the safest, most 
sanitary, most convenient and most efficient of all modern lighting systems. 
There are manufacturing companies who are building very successful 
private electrical lighting systems for farm homes. These operate on differ- 
ent voltages, namely: 30 volts, 60 volts and 110 volts. If the system is to 
furnish power for home conveniences such as operating churns, sewing 
machines, etc., the writer would recommend the 110-volt system. A 
storage battery will supply about two volts of electrical energy; therefore 
the 110-volt system would require about 56 cells, whereas, the 30 and 60- 

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111. 



206 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 




volt systems would operate at a less cost for such equipment. In most 
cases these systems receive their power from small gasoline engines; how- 
ever, it is becoming popular in mountainous regions to use small streams 
to furnish motive power. Where water is used, the storage battery is not 
necessary, because water forces through the wheel at a steady rate which 
will in turn produce a steady light. This is not true of a small gasoline 
engine, although some companies are making very sensitive engine gov- 
ernors and heavy flywheels which are calculated to run very smoothly. 
Heating. — There are three distinct heating systems from one central 
^^ ^w plant, namely: hot air, 

^rr]^ . _^H^ hot water and steam. 

These systems are used 
mostly in extremely 
cold countries. 

1. The hot-air sys- 
tem, if properly in- 
stalled, gives the best 
ventilation, and in most 
cases is the cheapest of 
the three. In cold, 
windy weather this sys- 
tem is rather hard to 
control on account of 
the leeward side of the 
house receiving the 
greater part of the heat. 

2. The hot-water 
heating system is the 
most expensive to in- 
stall on account of two 
systems of piping, one 
for feed, the other for 
return. It has been 

found that the Honeywell generator or the Mercury-Seal system causes 
the hot water to flow more rapidly than without, thus increasing the 
efficiency of the system. 

3. Steam heat is entirely satisfactory. It gives quicker heat, but does 
not retain its heat as long as the hot-water system. 

Ventilation. — There are two influences which cause ventilation. 
namely: (1) the force of the wind, which causes more or less suction from 
any opening in a building; (2) the difference in outside and inside tempera- 
tures, the warm air inside rising and escaping through any opening, thus 
causing ventilation. The "King system" is generally used in farm 
buildings at the present time. It consists in admitting fresh air near the 

1 Courtesy of Louden Machinery Company, Fairfield, la. 




CROSS SECT/ON CTBA 
*SMOk//NG FOUL AIR ducts 

ARRANGEMENT FOR. COhO rAC/A.'G 




Modified King System of Ventilation. 1 



FARM SANITATION 



20' 



ceiling and conducting the foul air from the interior through an opening 
sometimes located at the highest point of the building. 

Dampers should be placed at the intake and the outlet in order that 
this system may be thoroughly controlled. For horses and cows the 
area of cross section of outlet flues should not be less than 30 square inches 
for each animal when the flue is 30 feet high, and 36 square inches for each 
when only 20 feet high. The cross section of the intakes should aggregate 




A Pneumatic Water Tank. 1 



approximately the same as the outlets. Ventilating flues should be airtight 
and with as few bends as possible. 

There is a system of using double sash windows for dairy barns, in 
which the top sash is hinged at the bottom so as to permit the entrance of 
air when the top of the sash is drawn into the barn a few inches. The air 
entering is deflected upward, thus avoiding a draft of cold air upon the 
cattle in the barn. This is one of the absolute essentials of a good ventilat- 
ing system. Deflectors should be placed at the sides of the windows, which 
will also prevent air from blowing directly upon the stock. 

Water Supply. — Water can be supplied to a home under pressure from 
an elevated tank, also from a pneumatic tank into which water is pumped 

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Company, Chicago. 



208 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



against a cushion of air. An elevation may be procured by placing the 
water tank upon a silo, upon a tower or upon a hill. In extremely cold 
climates water in an elevated tank is likely to freeze, and in hot climates 
it becomes warm and is not palatable. Where it is not too expensive, a 
reservoir placed on the side of a hill and well protected supplies water 
under pressure at an even temperature the year around. Such an ele- 
vation is permanent and the pipes are placed beneath the ground so 
they do not freeze. It is considered, after first cost, the most satisfactory 




Fairbanks-Morse Water System for Farms and Suburban Homes. 1 

system of water supply. In recent years the pneumatic tank which may 
be buried in the ground or placed in the cellar is considered an excellent 
method for supplying water under pressure to the farmstead. 

In installing a system of this kind, one should be sure he is dealing 
with a responsible company. It is very necessary that the pump supply- 
ing the water to this tank should be provided with a small air pump as 
well. This will supply air as well as water, thus insuring the air cushion 
at all times. Such a system should be operated under about 50 pounds 
pressure. 

Sewage Disposal. — In some states there are laws which prohibit the 
discharge of sewage from even a single house into a stream of any size, 

•Courtesy of Fairbanks. Morso & Company. Chicago. 



FARM SANITATION 



209 



even though the person discharging the sewage may own the land through 
which the stream flows. Such a law should not require legal machinery 
for its enforcement, but should appeal to the sense of justice and intelli- 
gence of all good citizens. 

Vital statistics show that the death rate from typhoid fever in New 
York State since 1900 has de- 
creased in the cities, while it 
has remained about constant in 
rural districts. This reduction 
in the death rate in the cities 
may be accredited in large meas- 
ure to the improved methods of 
sewage disposal and close atten- 
tion to pure water supply in- 
tended for human consumption. 

It is, therefore, desirable 
to purify sewage before its 
discharge into any place where 
it may contaminate food or 
water intended for human con- 
sumption. 

The art of sewage treat- 
ment when purification is 
carried on in septic tanks con- 
sists in two distinct forms of 
decomposition. 

The first form of decom- 
position takes place in the 
absence of oxygen or air, and 
is called anserobic, or without 
air. Under ordinary circum- 
stances it is accompanied with 
disagreeable odors. The sec- 
ond decomposition process 
takes place in the presence of 
air and is called serobic, or with air. 
agreeable odors. 

The first treatment consists in allowing the fresh sewage to enter a 
water-tight septic tank, and remain for twenty-four or forty-eight hours. 
During this period, in the absence of air, the organic matter of the sewage 
is broken down into small particles. The purpose of this treatment is to 
get the sewage in such a condition that it can be purified No purifica- 
tion is accomplished during this process. The secondary treatment con- 
sists in exposing the effluent from the septic tank to the atmosphere, where 

1 Courtesy of The Kaustine Company, Inc., Buffalo. 




The Kaustine Closet. 1 
A germless water closet. 

It is accomplished without dis- 



210 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

the mass of small particles may be oxidized after the water has been 
strained from it. This process is accomplished generally in two ways. 
First, the effluent from the septic tank is flushed upon filter beds which 
are made by excavating in the ground about two feet deep and filling 
with sand after placing four-inch drain tile on the bottom. The drain 
tile should have an outlet from whence the filtered liquid may escape. 
The air and sunshine decompose the organic matter which is left upon 
the filter bed. The second method of final disposition of sewage consists 
in flushing the sewage from the septic tank into a series of drain tile which 
are placed under ground and have a slope of about 1 inch in 100 feet. In 
sandy soil about 150 feet of pipe should be allowed for each person living 
in the home. In clay soil about 400 feet of pipe should be provided for 
each person. It is necessary to ventilate these lines of pipe at intervals 
in order that the material left in the pipes after the liquid has escaped 
into the soil may be oxidized by the air. The size of the tank should be 
determined by the size of the family, allowing twenty-five gallons of water 
per day for each person. 

By writing the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, 
one may receive farmers' bulletins which describe and illustrate different 
systems of sewage disposal. It is often thought and sometimes stated in 
literature that after sewage has remained in a septic tank for twenty-four 
hours it may be dumped into a stream without fear of pollution. This 
is absolutely wrong, for the sewage may contain disease germs which are 
not affected in the least by the decomposition in the septic tank. 

There is a patented sanitary closet which is manufactured by the 
Kaustine Company, Buffalo, N. Y., which is giving good satisfaction. 
The principle upon which this method of sewage purification operates is 
as follows: 

The excrement enters a steel tank containing a very strong chemical 

which is mixed with water. This chemical destroys all bacteria and odor 

and also disintegrates all solid matter to the point that it may be drained 

or pumped from the tank and disposed of without fear of contamination. 

This tank will hold the sewage produced by a family of five during a 

period of six to eight months. The contents of the tank rates high in 

fertilizing value. 

REFERENCES 

"Electricity for the Farm." Anderson. 

"Rural Hygiene." Ogden. 

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 78. "Ventilation of Farm Buildings." 

V. S. Dept. (if Agriculture Bulletin 57. "Water Supply and Sewage Disposal for 

Country Homes." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Year-Book 1914. "Clean Water on the Farm and How to 

Cct, It." 

Fanners' Bulletin 463, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Sanitary Privy." 



CHAPTER 13 

Farm Drainage and Irrigation 

Water is the first essential to plant growth, and yet either too much or 
too little prevents a normal growth of most farm crops. The removal of 
water from the soil is known as drainage, while the adding of water is called 
irrigation. 

LAND DRAINAGE 

The need for drainage and the advantages of it are discussed in 
Chapter 7. Only the engineering features of it will be discussed here. 

Co-operation. — Wherever large tracts of farm land are to be drained, 
co-operation among the land owners is necessary for the establishment of 
an economic drainage system. The laws of most states provide for an 
equitable appraisement of benefits derived by the land owners in a drainage 
district and make possible the establishment of the district when the 
majority of land owners ask for it. 

The first step in the formation of a district is an accurate survey of 
the natural water course and an estimate of the size and length cf the 
system of open ditches necessary for the proper drainage of the land. The 
ditching is generally done by a contractor making a specialty of this kind 
of work. His services are secured through the ditch commissioners, three 
or more in number, who are elected by the land owners of the district. 
Bids are usually let in order to secure competition and get the wcrk dene 
at an equitable price. 

The dredged ditches, when completed, usually provide each land owner 
with an outlet. All subsequent drainage is done by the individual owners, 
each for his own farm. The individual farm drainage consists chiefly or 
wholly of tile drains that empty into the open ditches. 

The old plow-and-scraper method of making ditches is applicable only 
when the soil is fairly dry. It will not be described here. Except for 
very small jobs, it is more expensive than excavating with one of the 
several forms of large ditching machines. 

Of the several types of ditching machines, the floating dredge is the 
most common and the most successful in level land and for large jobs. It 
begins at the upper end of the drainage course and works down stream so 
that the excavation is always well filled with water and easily floats the 
dredge. This style of dredge is adapted to a large channel, varying from 
12 to 60 feet in width. The earth is excavated by large scoops on immense 
steel arms, operated by steam power. The earth is deposited on either side 
of the channel and at a distance of 6 to 12 feet from the edge of it. In the 

. (211) 



212 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



absence of stones, roots or other obstructions, ditches may be excavated 

at a cost of from 7 to L3 cents per cubic yard. The contract is frequently 
made od the basis of material removed. 

It is essential that such water courses be made as straighl and as deep 
as conditions will permit. The straighl course makes the shortest possible 
ditch and provides for the maximum fall. ( rood fall and straightness both 
accelerate the flow of water and make possible adequate drainage with a 
smaller ditch than would be possible with a longer and more circuitous 
route. 

The ditch embankments, after weathering for a year, may be gradually 
leveled down and worked hack into the adja- 
cent tields by the use of plows and scrapers. 
The banks of the ditch need not be as sloping, 
as formerly thought, although the slope will 
depend on the character of soil. In heavy, ten- 
acious soils, a slope of ^ to 1 is sufficient, that 
is 6 inches horizontal to 1 foot vertical. The 
fall of the ditch may range from (i inches to 3 
feet or more per mile. With 3 feet of fall per 
mile, the velocity of the water Avill keep the 
ditch fairly free from sediment, provided it is 
not allowed to become Idled with growing grass, 
weeds or willows. If these grow in the ditch 
during the dry portion of the year, they should 
be cut and removed annually. Where the 
fall is too great, the hanks of the ditch are 




Ghading the Ditch and 
Laving Tile. 1 

a — Depth gauge. b — 

Crosspiece. cand d — Stakes 

driven in ground to give 

proper slope to grading linee 

f — Hollow tile drain. 



apt to e; ide and cave in. The caved earth 



will be carried and deposited in lower portions 
of the stream course and cause trouble. The 
hanks of the ditch should he kept covered 
with grass to prevent erosion. 

Tile Drains. — The first step in tile drain- 
age is an accurate survey of the land to he 
drained. This will determine the fall and the besl position for tic n ain 
drains. Jt should also include an estimate ^\' the water shed, that is, the 
amount of water to he carried away, whether falling on the land to he 
drained or flowing on to it from adjacent higher lands. The lines of 
drainage should he :is straight as conditions will permit. The mains 
should he in the lowest portions of the field. Laterals may extend from 
them into more elevated portions. In case of very level land, this makes 
provision for the greatest possible full in the drainage lines. 

Running the Levels.- This work may he done by the farmer. In 
large systems or on very level land, the employment of an engineer is 
advised. A farm drainage level thai is sufficiently accurate may he pur- 

1 Courtesy pt. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 187. 



FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 213 

chased for about $15. For very small jobs a home-made water level will 
serve the purpose. This consists of a section of gas pipe about three feet 
long, with a glass tube attached to each end by means of corks or rubber 
tubing. The glass tubes should be at right angles to the pipe. When 
filled with a colored solution and held approximately level, the operator 
sights across the top of the colored solution as it appears in the two glass 
tubes. 

Establishing the Grades. — The drainage lines are laid out by driving 
stakes at intervals of 50 to 100 feet, about 18 inches to one side of the 
center of the ditch. These stakes are driven into the ground until the tops 




A Low-priced Tile Ditcher. 



are only two or three inches above the ground level. By use of the level, 
the elevation of each is ascertained. The next step is to calculate the total 
fall of the line and determine whether the grade is to be uniform or whether 
it must be changed for a portion of the course. This will depend on the 
variation in the slope of the surface of the ground. If the slope varies 
much, two or more grades may be necessary in order that the drainage pipe 
may be placed at the desired depth beneath the surface of the ground. A 
single grade may result in the tile being too deep over a portion of the course, 
thus necessitating expensive excavating, or it may be too shallow to provide 
effective drainage. These difficulties are avoided by suitable changes in 
the grade. 

Grade stakes projecting about 18 inches above the surface of the 
ground are set one beside each of the stakes designating the level. These 



214: 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



are driven so that the tops are a uniform distance above the bottom of 
the ditch as it is to be excavated. This may be \\ feet or any convenient 
height. A cord or wire is next stretched tightly over the top of the grade 
stakes. By means of a gauge, the ditcher can control the depth of the 
ditch. Care should be exercised not to get it too deep, or to make the 
bottom wider than necessary. 

The sketch on a preceding page shows the method of gauging the 
depth, the character of excavation and the position of the tile. 

Small Ditching Machines. — These may be used to facilitate the work 



t 






<S 




















1 






w 


> j. 












f 

L 




^R 


^ s 

> 

4 


y 




1 


— i -< — -a. 


p& 


yr ■- 


jt 


■ 


*W 




' ) 


*■*- 

' 


" 










V 









The Ditcher in Operation. 

Can be operated by one man and six horses. It will excavate 100 rods of dirt 
to a depth of 3 feet daily. 

of excavation. They do it more rapidly than can be done by hand and 
at less cost. They are adapted only to fairly long courses. It will gen- 
erally be necessary to grade the bottom of the ditch by hand. 

Size of Tile. — In any system the major portion of the tiles will be 
three inches in diameter. All lines not exceeding 500 feet in length and 
having no branches entering may be of this size. When such lines exceed 
500 feet the lower portion should be 4-inch tile. The capacity of pipes 
is in proportion to the square of their respective diameters, plus some- 
thing for the relatively lesser amount of friction in the large diameters. 
Jn practice, one 4-inch line will accommodate two 3-inch lines. One 
8-inch lin^ will accommodate five 4-inch lines, etc. 



FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 



215 



The removal of one-quarter inch of rainfall in 24 hours will generally 
provide adequate drainage. On this basis the area in acres drained by 
given sizes of tile and grades are as follows: 



Diameter of Drain. 


Grade 1 Inch 
to 100 Feet. 


Grade 3 Inches 
to 100 Feet. 


5 


19.1 

29.9 

44.1 

61.4 

82.2 

106.2 

167.7 

341.4 


25.1 

39.6 

58.9 

80.9 

108.4 

140.6 

221 1 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


16 


449.9 





To double the fall for steeper grades than those given in the above table 
will increase the carrying capacity of the tile one-quarter to one-third. 



IRRIGATION 

Water, wisely used, has converted many desert acres into fruitful 
fields and orchards. This has made possible thriving settlements in many 
parts of the arid West, and encouraged the development of industries 
other than agriculture, especially the mining of useful metals. 

Water Rights. — In regions of limited water supply, laws for the con- 
trol of water become essential. These laws should be understood and 
obeyed by all users of water. It is a principle that rather definite shares 
in the water supply of a region shall be apportioned to specific areas of 
land. When the water supply is insufficient for all available land, priority 
of appropriation receives first consideration. A new settler is prohibited 
by law from sharing in the water supply at the expense of early settlers. 
In many irrigation districts, the extravagant use of water has prevailed. 
A more economical use on the part of the older settlers would produce 
equally as good crops. In fact, the extravagant use of water is more 
often injurious than otherwise. 

Co-operation. — This is a necessary feature in most irrigation dis- 
tricts, because the water supply must serve the entire community, and in 
order to do so most advantageously, co-operative action is called for in 
its use and conservation. Co-operation means that the farmers on an 
irrigation ditch must take turns in using the water. The larger the volume 
of water the shorter the time each may use it and the greater number 
of farmers can be supplied. The apportionment of the water should 
correspond to the acreage of crops to be irrigated by each farmer. This 
rotation of the allotment of water to the farmers on a ditch is advan- 
tageous from two standpoints. First, it gives each farmer sufficient water 
to cover his land in a very short time, thus economizing on the time spent 

49 



216 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

in irrigating. Second, it overcomes the loss of water by seepage and 
evaporation which takes place when he has a constant small stream. 

Sources of Water. — The chief .sources of irrigation water are peren- 
nial streams, springs and wells. The first named is by far the mosi 
important. The first consideration in the development of an irrigation 
supply from a stream is the volume of water carried a1 all times during 
the year; and second, whether or not the water can be brought to the 
land to l»e irrigated at a reasonable expense. This will depend prin- 
cipally upon the length of ditch to he constructed and the character of 
land that must l»e traversed by it. In some cases, pipe lines may take 
the place of ditches without great additional expense and with much less 
waste of water. 

The larger the ditch and the more porous the soil through which it 
passes, the smaller should he the fall. If, however, the grade is too 
small, the ditch must he larger in order to carry the supply of water. In 
ordinary soils, a grade of one foot in 600 feet may he given. En clay 
soils, it may he increased to two feet in (i(K) feel. A slow movement of 
water in the ditch prevents scouring and encourages the settlement of 
fine sediment. This ultimately forms an impervious lining and prevents 
seepage. 

Springs offer an excellent irrigation water supply, and although the 
volume is much less than that from perennial streams, it is subject to less 
fluctuation in volume and is consequently more dependable. 

Wells form a considerable source of irrigation water supply in many 
of the irrigation districts. They are virtually artificial springs secured 
by boring deep wells provided with iron casings. \\i some instances, as 
in fD^r of wells that do not flow, and in elevating water from lakes and 
streams to land lying above the water level, pumping is resorted to. 

Dams and Reservoirs.— Perennial streams are subject to great 
fluctuation, due to periodic rains and melting snow. Their direct diver- 
sion for irrigation purposes, therefore, fails to utilize much of the water 
during high stages. This has led to methods of storing the water to hi 1 
used as needed, thus increasing the area irrigated. While dams are neces- 
sary for diverting water from streams into canals, much larger and more 
expensive ones are required in the building of reservoirs. It is important 
to select the dam site with a view of securing the largest possible Wafer 
Storage capacity with the minimum expenditure for construction. Such 
sites are most usually found in the upper courses of a stream where it 

;s through a narrows or canyon. Rocky, impervious abutments to 
which to connect the dam are essential. On large projects the reinforced 
masonry or concrete dam that will he permanent is advised. The deeper 
the water in a storage reservoir the less will he the relative loss by 
evaporation. 

Methods of Transmission. — The census of L910 gave an aggregate 
of over 125,000 miles of irrigated ditches in the United State-. At that 



FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 217 

time, less than four per cent of this mileage was lined or otherwise made 
impervious to water. A limited amount of irrigation water is conveyed 
through pipe lines of different types, of which wood, terra-cotta and 
cement predominate. It is important to construct the irrigation ditch 
of the proper size to convey the maximum amount of water that will be 
available or the maximum that can be used by those who irrigate. In 
this connection it is advised to secure the services of an engineer. It 
should be understood that the amount of water conveyed depends on the 
cross section of the canal and the rate of movement of the water. In a 
small ditch capable of carrying 50 miner's inches, a fall of 2 inches to the 
rod will give a velocity of 2 feet per second. In a ditch carrying 20 times 
as much water, a fall of \ inch to a rod will give an equal velocity. Except 
in hard clay or a mixture of gravel and clay, a velocity greater than 3 
feet per second is likely to cause serious ercsicn. A velocity of 2 to 2\ 
feet is the maximum that should be permitted fcr ordinary sandy loams 
or loams. Where the fall cf the land is such as to cause a greater velocity 
of the water, checks in the canals should be provided. These may be 
wooden dams or obstructions of cobblestones, causing a drop in the water. 
In lined canals erosion is overcome and the velocity of the water 
may be much greater. Where there is ample fall, such a canal may be 
much smaller than an ordinary earth canal. The transmission of water 
through pipes has a still greater advantage in this respect and may be 
conducted down very steep grades. 

Losses in Transmission. — Much water diverted from streams for 
irrigation is lost from the ditches by seepage and evaporation, and is 
still further wasted by over-irrigation and by allowing the water to pene- 
trate the soil beyond the reach of crops. Water lost in these ways often 
causes serious damage to the lower lying land in the irrigation district. 
Numerous water measurements and experiments have led to a conserva- 
tive estimate that not more than 35 per cent of the water diverted from 
streams is effective in plant production. 

The efficiency of irrigation water can be greatly increased by the 
substitution of pipe lines for open ditches and by greater care in the 
distribution of water in the fields. 

Head Gates. — Head gates are necessary at the point of diversion 
from a stream into the main irrigation canal, and also at points along 
the main canal at the juncture of laterals. Such gates are usually con- 
structed of plank with a gate that slides up and down to control the 
volume of water. A simple form is shown in the accompanying illustration. 
Preparing Land for Irrigation. — The preparation of the land consists 
in clearing it of the native vegetation, which in the arid region is usually 
sage-brush, rabbit-bush, cacti and native grasses. Plowing frequently 
precedes the clearing operation. This makes easy the gathering and 
burning of the vegetation. The plowing and clearing should be followed 
by a thorough harrowing, grading and smoothing of the surface. The 



218 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



supply ditch should be above the highest portion of the land to be irri- 
gated. After the field is cleaned and leveled, farm ditches should be 




IX I U 



!<xi Wtotrro'n- 



Gate Partly Open aud Locked 

Delivery Gate to Farm Lateral. 1 



conducted over the higher portions of it. From these ditches the water 
may be conducted to all portions of the land. As far as possible these 
ditches should extend along the borders of the fields in order to avoid 




Old WugouTirc 
Tin; V-CrOWDEB IB EXCELLENT FOR MAKING THE 1\\K\I DlTCHES. 1 

obstructions to cultivation. When necessary to cross fields with open 
ditches, they should be so placed as to avoid as far as possible irregularity 
in shape of fields. 

1 Courtesy of The McGraw-Hill Book Company, N T . Y. From " Use of Water in Irrigation," by Fortier. 



FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 219 



Farm Ditches. — The size of the farm ditches will be determined by 
the acreage of land irrigated by each, the fall in the ditches and the 
amount of water that must be cared for in a unit of time. On uneven 
land it is necessary to bridge over the depressions with levees or flumes. 
The levee is usually the cheaper, but should be allowed to settle. It will 
be subject to wash-outs during the first few years. 

Wooden flumes are more satisfactory, but wood soon decays when 
used for this purpose. Metal or concrete pipes cost most, but are durable 
and generally cheapest in the end. The method of constructing the farm 
ditches depends on their size. Most of the work on them may be done 
with the plow and the V-crowder. The crowder makes a ditch with a 
triangular bottom. This bottom becomes rounded by usage. It is 
important that the ditch be made in the proper place at the outset. 
The older the ditch, the more impervious its banks and bottom become 
and the more satisfaction it 
gives. Leaky ditches may 
be greatly improved by pud- 
dling the earth of the sides 
and bottom. This may be 
done by drawing cff the 
water and driving a flock of 
sheep the length of the ditch 
while it is muddy. Drag- 
ging the bottom with a 
brush harrow may be re- 
sorted to for the same pur- 
pose. 

On well-established 
ditches the chief items of maintenance are the removal of silt, weeds 
and aquatic plants that may grow in them. 

Distributaries. — These consist of small wooden, metal or rubber 
tubes, imbedded in the bank of the ditch so that the water will pass 
through the embankment and be uniformly distributed on the adjacent 
land. These need not be permanent, but may be imbedded temporarily, 
and moved from field to field as needed. Square boxes, made of lath cut 
in half, are cheap, light and serve the purpose as well as more expensive 
metal tubes. Being square and rough, they stay in the embankment 
better than the smoother metal or rubber tubes. 

Small syphons of rubber hose are also used. These obviate the 
necessity of disturbing the ditch bank. The chief objection to these is 
the starting of the flow of water. 

Distributing the Water. — The method of distribution will depend 
on the slope of the land, the character of the soil and the kind of crop. 
Level land is easily irrigated by flooding the whole surface. This method 

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y.1 From " Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe. 




Canvas Dam to Check Water. 1 



220 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



is applicable to the irrigation of alfalfa, grass and small grains. The 
surface, however, should be divided into areas thai may be covered in :i 
comparatively shorl time with the water available. When one area has 
received sufficienl water, the flow is then directed to the uexl one. and 
so on until the irrigation is completed. If the field to be irrigated is 
large, it necessitates a network of ditches or parallel ditches at intervals 
of 300 to 400 feet, extending across the field. The distance to which the 
water may travel over the surface of the ground depends on the char- 
acter of soil and the ease of penetration. The more porous the soil, the 
shorter the intervals should be. If the intervals are too long, the soil 




Orchard Irrigation by Furrow Method. 1 



nearest the ditch becomes over-irrigated before the water reaches the 
further portions. 

With this method of irrigation the water is generally made to flow 
over the embankmenl by use of a temporary dam. The most convenient 

form consists of a strong piece of canvas four or five feet square with one 
edge securely nailed to a tough bul lighl piece of wood that will reach from 
hank to hank of the ditch. When this is laid in the ditch with the canvas 
upstream and a few shovels of dirt thrown on ils edges, it completely 

dams the water. It is easily moved from place to place as needed. 

All crops planted in rows, such as vegetables, sugar beets, potatoes 
and fruit, are generally irrigated by the furrow method. Where the rows 
are close together, the furrows alternate with the rows, being midway 

i Courtesy of The McGraw FIul Bool Company, VY. From " Use of Watei in [rrigation," by Fortier, 



FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 



221 



between them. If they are further apart, as in orchards, two or more 
furrows for each row of plants are desirable. The length of furrows will 
depend on the character of soil. If very porous, they should not be more 
than 300 feet long. In heavy soils, the length may be as much as 600 
feet. In this type of irrigation the rows extend at right angles to the 
ditches, and the water is most conveniently taken from the ditch by dis- 
tributors previously described. It is usually desirable to turn the water 
into as many as 50 furrows at one time. 

The Check System. — It consists of dividing the field into a number 
of small compartments, surrounded by low levees. The water is turned 
in these to the desired depth. This gives a rather complete control of 



joKfjKittK&a HLd^L*^kL. A-Jiiifc. .^ -^~k — ~~~~A. 



Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System. 1 



the amount of water applied to each unit of ground. The size of the 
checks depends on the slope of the land, small checks being necessary 
where the slope is severe. This method is adapted to orchard irrigation. 
Where water is conveyed through pipes and there is sufficient water- 
head for pipe pressure, spraying irrigation may be resorted to. The 
Skinner system is probably the most successful of the several spray 
methods. It consists of a series of pipes at intervals of about forty feet, 
extending across the field to be irrigated. These are connected with a 
water main which is closed by a valve when not in use. The lines of pipe 
are supported at a height of about seven feet on posts, in such a way that 
the pipes may be turned. The pipes are fitted with small nozzles at 
intervals of about three feet. These should be in straight lines. The 
water issuing from them under high pressure is thrown a considerable 



» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. ] | 



222 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

distance in a fine spray. By turning the pipe, the water is directed to 
either side of the pipe line at the desired angle. 

With the pipes parallel and the supporting posts in line at right 
angles to them, cultivation may take place in either direction beneath the 
pipes. While this system is rather expensive to install, it is well adapted 
to small areas intensively farmed, to truck crops and small fruits. Such 
systems are common along the Atlantic Seaboard and in some parts of 
the South. 

Duty of Water. — This pertains to the area of land that may be irri- 
gated with a unit of water, such as a "second foot" or a "miner's inch." 
The wasteful methods of irrigating and lack of knowledge on the part 
of the farmer result in a low duty. Under favorable conditions the duty 
should be about 200 acres for each "second foot." It would seem wise 
that the duty of water should be fixed within reasonable limits by some 
competent authority for a particular state or irrigation district. Local 
conditions, such as rainfall, length of growing season and the intensity of 
agriculture, should be taken into consideration in fixing the duty of water. 

When to Irrigate. — How often to irrigate and how much water to 
apply will depend on local conditions, such as character of soil, kind of 
crop and weather conditions. Economy in water as well as the labor of 
irrigating, should make the intervals as long as feasible. Water should 
be applied until the soil is wet to the full depth to which the roots of the 
crop in question penetrate. The deeper the soil is wet, the longer may be 
the interval between irrigations. Lighter and more frequent irrigations 
penetrate the soil to less depth, increase the labor and result in greater 
loss of water by direct evaporation. Water should be applied when the 
crops need it and irrigation cease when the need is fully met. Enough 
water is better than too much. 

Where there is a bountiful winter supply of water and a scant supply 
during the summer, winter irrigation is recommended. It stores the soil 
with water and lessens the need during the summer. 

Water should be applied to crops abundantly when they are growing 
most rapidly. Irrigation may be withheld as they approach maturity. 

Irrigation Waters.- — Irrigation water sometimes becomes so heavily 
charged with salts that it proves harmful to tender plants. This con- 
dition arises either from concentration through evaporation in shallow 
reservoirs or from passing through alkali soil. Along stream courses, the 
reckless use of water gives rise to much seepage which returns to the 
stream lower down. This frequently becomes so plentiful that it forms a 
supply for another irrigation disl rict further down the st ream course. Such 
water is frequently unsuited for irrigation purposes. 

Alkali Troubles.— The rise of alkali is generally caused by over- 
irrigation. An excess of water causes the ground water table to rise until 
the gravitational water c:m reach the surface by capillary attraction. 
This causes excessive evaporation ;it the surface of the soil and results 



FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 223 

in the accumulation of alkali salts. In time, the concentration will pre- 
vent the growth of crops. This can usually be avoided by greater care in 
irrigating. Where conditions are such that it cannot be avoided in this 
way, under-drainage should be installed. The alkali may now be washed 
out of the soil through the underdrains, by flooding the surface with fresh 
water. The use of alkali waters also stocks the soil with alkali salts. The 
use of such water should be avoided as far as possible, or the difficulty 
overcome by drainage and flooding as above mentioned. 

REFERENCES 

"Practical Farm Drainage." Elliott. 
"Principles of Irrigation Practice." Widtsoe. 
"Irrigation and Drainage." King. 
"Irrigation Institutions." Mead. 
"Practical Irrigation." Bowie. 
"Irrigation." Newell. 
"American Irrigation Farming." Olin. 
Utah Expt. Station Bulletins: 

115. "The Movement of Water in Irrigation." 

118. "Method of Increasing Crop Producing Power of Water." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, O. E. S. Bulletins: 

177. "Evaporation Losses in Irrigation and Water Requirements of Crops." 

248. "Evaporation from Irrigation Soils." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

373. "Irrigation of Alfalfa." 

371. "Drainage of Irrigated Lands." 

392. "Irrigation of Sugar Beets." 

394. "Use of Windmills in Irrigation." 

399. "Irrigation of Grain." 

404. "Irrigation of Orchards." 

524. "Drainage on the Farm." 

673. "Irrigation Practice in Rice Growing." 

698. "Trenching Machinery Used for the Construction of Trenches for the 
Drains." 



